Category: Colonialism

Meiji Japan, Colonialism and Beyond.
The most influential aspects that would come out of Japan’s war with China, (the First Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895) and the war with Russia (Russo-Japanese War 1904 – 1905) did not occur during the wars themselves, but rather in the years following the conflicts. These wars were, essentially, the precursors to the Imperial Japan of World War Two infamy.
The First Sino-Japanese War showed Japan that the reforms and modernizations of the Mieji Restoration were working as opposed to China’s Self Strengthening Movement that had been a domestic failure. “War was…declared on 1st August 1894, and although foreign observers had predicted an easy victory for the more massive Chinese forces, the Japanese had done a more successful job of modernizing, and they were better equipped and prepared.
Japanese troops scored quick and overwhelming victories on both land and sea.”1  This war also established a relationship with western nations that resulted in tremendous improvements in Japan’s military. So profound were this improvements that Japan would later wage a successful war of for the “rights” to imperial interests against Russia that had a far superior military.

In a way, Japan’s involvement in these wars did show the nation had developed similarities with Western nations beyond simply modernizing domestically in social and industrial terms. The foreign policy of Japan began to mimic the least desirable aspect of all of Western Europe’s foreign policy. This area of foreign policy was an emphasis on imperialism and colonization.
The classical tradition of imperialism and colonization involved superior
powered military incursions into other countries in order to conquer the nation,
subjugate the people and strip the indigenous natural resources from the conquered nations. Winning the wars with China and Russia help set the stage for the coming of an Imperial Japan that would wage a massive war in the Pacific Seas during World War Two.
By 1895 Japan was beginning to see the fruits of their labor as the defeat of China in several wars and the annexation of Taiwan brought Japan political recognition from many European countries.  Recognition from the European countries meant an escape from many of the treaties that had been forced upon Japan in the 1870’s, and an alliance with England in 1902.  Japan had finally won the respect of the developed world as a military power; however, they were still viewed as an inferior culture and were not afforded the same courtesies as predominantly Anglo-Saxon nations.2
With the war with China, Japan established a foothold as a colonizing empire as it would claim Korea as the prize for its expansion. With Russia, the victory was even more complex. In the part of the world where Japan resides, the bulk of the colonial incursions and wars were bought between eastern nations and western nations as well as eastern nations vs. other eastern nations.
Japan’s victory against Russia marked the first time an eastern power defeated a western power in a war, the shockwaves of which reverberated throughout the world. Japan’s standing had greatly increased while Russia’s standing was greatly diminished. For Russia, the loss was yet another link in the chain of events that would lead to the Bolshevik Revolution and for Japan, the second link in the chain (a second victorious war) that would lead to Japan’s brutal World War Two imperialist fantasies was solidified.
Imperial powers are amoral, but they are not suicidal. That is, it is rare that imperial expansions are undertaken against strong or powerful nations. Japan’s wins in the First Sino-Japanese War and the Japanese-Russian War were important in the sense that, for lack of a better explanation, saw Japan gain valuable experience in the art of waging war. Furthermore, they established to the world that they were a viable, major power. More importantly, internally, the wins provided feedback to the rulers that Japan’s military strategies worked and that their army and navy was indeed formidable. The seeds were planted with these victories that laid the foundation for even further expansions that would result in the World War Two’s War in the Pacific.
Imperialist nations to not launch wars that they feel they are going to lose. In terms of colonizing, a loss would be self-defeating and a drain of the nation. A successful colonization incursion eventually pays for itself by way of the colonized nation providing wealth in terms of losing the rewards of its natural resources. The victories in the wars with China and Russia emboldened Japan to have faith enough in itself to join the Axis powers.
The expansion of the military from its victories against China and Russia lead to an immorality that would yield biological war in China and forced starvation in the Philippines. The mere fact that Japan attacked a superpower the size of the United States speaks volumes for the confidence Japan had in its military prowess.
On the surface, these two wars Japan was involved with were seemingly successful and expanded Japan’s colonial interests and ambitions, but ultimately, the wars proved disastrous as they were step towards Japan’s downfall World War Two only brought Japan defeat, humiliation and devastation via the Atomic Bomb.
Works Cited
Anon., “Imperial Japan”, available , Internet, accessed 05 November 2006.
Russo-Japanese War Research Society, “Forerunners, The Sino-Japanese War”, available from http://www.russojapanesewar.com/phila-2.html, Internet, accessed 05 November 2006.
National Clearinghouse for U.S.-Japan Studies, “Japan’s Imperial Family”, available from http://www.indiana.edu/~japan/iguides/imperial.html, Internet, accessed 05 November 2006.
1 Russo-Japanese War Research Society, “Forerunners, The Sino-Japanese War”, available from  http://www.russojapanesewar.com/phila-2.html, Internet, accessed 05 November 2006.
2 Anon., “Imperial Japan”, available from http://filebox.vt.edu/users/jearnol2/ MeijiRestoration/imperial_japan.htm, Internet, accessed 05 November 2006.

Meiji Japan, Colonialism and Beyond

Postcolonialism.
Postcolonial is that which questions, overturns, and / or critically refracts colonial authority-its epistemology and forms of violence, its claims to superiority. Postcolonial therefore refers to those theories, texts, political strategies, and modes of activism that engage in such questioning, that aim to challenge structural inequalities and bring about social Justice. It is helpful to view postcolonial in a comparative frame alongside feminism.
Both these approaches arrived at points of critical self-awareness in definitive periods of civil rights protests. This conjunction ay be partly explained by the fact that both approaches champion resistance to entrenched singular forms of authority (patriarchy, empire) from below or from positions of so called weakness. Both too seek the politicians of areas conventionally considered as non political: the domestic space, education, sport, the street, who may walk where, who may sit where, and how.
Some of the central critical concepts of postcolonial developed out of nationalist struggles for independence in the early half of the twentieth century. The political and cultural reforms proposed y anti-colonial movements in such countries as India, Egypt, Algeria, Ghana, Kenya and in the Caribbean, formed the fountainhead of what we now call postcolonial. At first, these movements advocated a politics of assimilation of ‘natives’ or the colonized into colonial society for them to obtain self representation.

They began with limited demands for piecemeal constitutional reforms but it became rapidly clear that the colonial authorities were not ready to dismantle the social, economic and political hierarchies on which their control rested. After the end of World War II, anti colonial nationalist movements took a more confrontational, no-compromise attitude. The demand was for complete independence. This demand extended not only to the liberation of political structures but also to the obliteration of the colonization of the psyche.
The sass marked a period of growing militancy in movements across the colonized world. Alongside came the retrieval and animation of indigenous culture as an important vehicle of national self expression and thus of resistance to the colonial exclusion of the native as uncouth, uncivilized inarticulate and irrational. The nationalist leaders and intellectuals like Gandhi and Nehru in India, fanons in Algeria and Came Markham in Ghana, helped define the major ideologies of postcolonial liberation.
They shaped some of the definitive concepts of postcolonial studies, as later interpreted in the works of Edward Said. They understood the anti-colonial struggle as a Mechanical, or binary, conflict of us against them, of self versus ‘other’. The binary between the so-called rational, superior colonial self and the barbarism and irrationality indicated by everything that was not-self or ‘other’ was to be repudiated wholesale. It was not Just to be turned upside down, but also destroyed. The chains of oppression were to be obliterated and not simply filed down.
If natives or others were always seen as secondary figures, imperfect replicas of the colonizer, wearers of borrowed cultural rags; if native society was invariably represented as disorderly or ethically degenerate; it was important that they remake themselves from scratch. It was essential that they reconstitute their identity on their own terms, that they Initialized, Africanize, or Caribbean themselves. They effectively needed to give birth to a new identity, to peak in a language that was chosen, not imposed. The liberation struggle involved a tripartite process.
It led from attempted cultural assimilation with the colonizers, the first stage, through attempts at political reform, sometimes of an intensively radical kind, as in demands for self -help and self-representation, the second stage. But if the colonial state proved intransigent, as it so often did, from this phase of forceful self-assertion developed a possible third stage; outright militant resistance. As Robbing wrote , conditions could arise where ‘national life’ had to become ‘perforce a national assault’.

Postcolonialism

The Rise of Colonialism and its Impact on Modern Society.
In the middle of the 1 5th century, as the Roman Empire was weakening, the fall of Constantinople marked a bigger impact than anyone could have considered. The Ottoman Empire had reign to advance into the Mediterranean, and that meant that traveling east on land was not an option. With the Renaissance about to emerge, it became a springboard for the development of advanced ships. This marked the beginning of the Age of Exploration and Colonialism. The Europeans had every advantage.
Their immune system had seen all the diseases in the Old World, while he native conquered people’s immune system had only seen a few diseases. The Europeans had far more superior crops and domesticated animals. Cows, pigs, and chicken are considered super animals compared to their wild counterparts, although the wild counterparts do not even exist in the New World. The same could be said for rice, barley, and wheat. The New World had never seen these types of food. The conquered spent their days looking for sustenance while the Europeans were developing guns and telescopes.
Because the backbone of the European nations was so developed and stable, their technology and power skyrocketed. With the power, colonization and slavery thrived. From Africa and Asia to the New World, pockets of colonies emerged and developed. Often conquering the entire continent, the colonizers went to work to extract what they thought was important. There were no rights for the conquered. They were in the European man’s world and had to go along for the ride. Racial prejudice rears its ugly head throughout the two World Wars and exists even today.

The concept of racism was developed during the Age of Colonialism. The thought that any particular type of person based on looks and color was better did not exist ecause it is not true. But during and after the Age of Colonialism, racism was taught to Europeans and enforced to non-Europeans. Europeans thought that looks and color of the Anglos meant more trustworthiness and intelligence. Unfortunately, the majority of Europeans did not realize that trustworthiness and intelligence are both learned behaviors, and that non-Europeans were taught to be “uncivilized”.
With the conviction of superiority, the Europeans subdued and dominated regions throughout the planet. Africa, in particular, has a long history of colonization from the Europeans. Conquest is defined as the subjugation and assumption of control of a place or people by the use of military force. Major parts of Africa were conquered by the Europeans since ancient times. From the 7th century, Arab trade with sub-Saharan Africa led to a gradual colonization of East Africa, around Zanzibar and other bases.
Although trans-Saharan trade led to a small number of West African cities developing Arab quarters, these were not intended as colonies, and while Morocco attempted to conquer areas of the Sahel in the Moroccan war, it was soon forced to withdraw its troops atter pillaging the area. Early European expeditions concentrated on colonizing previously uninhabited islands such as the Cape Verde Islands and S¤o Tom© Island, or establishing coastal forts as a base for trade.
These forts often developed areas of influence along coastal strips, but, with the exception of the Senegal River, the vast interior of Africa was not colonized and was little-known to Europeans until the late 19th century. Vincent Khapoya mentions Ali Mazrui’s three interrelated broad reasons for European exploration of Africa: to increase knowledge, to spread Christianity and to increase national esteem. European enslavement of Africans, and visa-versa, existed along the coasts of East and West Africa since ancient times. The business exploded, however, after the Age of Colonialism was under way.
During what was called by the European powers as, “The Scramble for Africa,” colonization was motivated by the European hunger for African resources. The subsequent exploitation of the African people and the uprooting of their spiritual values by Christian missionaries would leave a permanent European stamp on the continent. Britain took the largest piece of the African cake, rom Cairo to Cape Town, in addition to Nigeria and a few West African regions. It was also the British Empire that in 1894, imposed an arbitrary boundary around the many diverse ethnic groups and kingdoms that would make up modern day Uganda.
By exploiting linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences between the different ethnic groups, Britain’s divide and rule policies created tensions between the divided ethnic groups that helped maintain British rule. Officially, between 1884 and 1906 the Congo was controlled by a company entirely owned by King Leopold. The area was referred to as the ‘Belgian Free State. Until the end of the 1800s this company primarily exported ivory and palm-oil, a lubricant, from the Congo. Only a small profit was made from these products. At the end of the century, however, the world discovered rubber.
Soon everyone wanted it to make tires, hoses, tubes, valves and many other products. Rubber is produced from a latex ‘sap’ that came either from a tree or a vine, both of which grew exceptionally well in the Congo Jungle. Because of the new demand, the Belgian companies began demanding massive amounts of rubber from the Jungle and forced the natives to find massive amounts of it and eliver it to them. King Leopold became incredibly wealthy from the sale of rubber and the Congo paid the price. The method that most harvesters used to get the sap destroyed the trees and vines they took it from.
Soon the Belgians began to hire soldiers to make sure that the natives produced the raw material. They threatened them with starvation, mutilation or even death if they did not produce enough rubber. Many times they followed through with the threats. Between the 1880s and 1903 the population of the Congo was reduced from over 20 million people to about 8. 5 million. Joseph Conrad, an author who was there during this time, in his book Heart of Darkness, best illustrated what was going on there when one character on his death bed comments on the situation by simply saying: “the horror, the horror. The term ‘imperialism’ should not be confused with ‘colonialism’. Robert Young writes that imperialism operates from the center, it is a state policy, and is developed for ideological as well as financial reasons whereas colonialism is nothing more than development for settlement or commercial intentions. The Age of Imperialism was a ime period beginning around 1700 when modern, relatively developed nations were taking over less developed areas, colonizing them, or intluencing them in order to expand their own power.
Although imperialist practices have existed for thousands of years, the term “Age of Imperialism” generally refers to the activities of nations such as the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United States in the early 18th through the middle 20th centuries, the “The Great Game” in Persian lands, the “Scramble for Africa” and the “Open Door Policy” in China. Genocide is the eliberate or systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, caste, religious, or national group.
The Germans decided that certain ethnic groups were to be eradicated in Namibia. German Lieutenant-General Lothar von Trotha said, ‘l wipe out rebellious tribes with streams of blood and streams of money. Only following this cleansing can something new emerge’. Von Trotha brought with him to German South West Africa 10,000 heavily-armed men and a plan for war. During the period of colonization and oppression, many women were used as sex slaves. “To receive omen and children, most of them ill, is a serious danger to the German troops. And to feed them is impossible.
I find it appropriate that the nation perishes instead of infecting our soldiers. ” In the Herero work camps there were numerous children born to these abused women, and a man called Eugen Fischer, who was interested in genetics, came to the camps to study them. He decided that each mixed-race child was physically and mentally inferior to its German father and wrote a book promoting his ideas: “The Principles of Human Heredity and Race Hygiene”. Adolf Hitler read it hile he was in prison in 1923, and cited it in his own infamous pursuit of “racial purity’.
We can see a trend that follows. For the colonized, life became a living hell. For the colonizers, life became extravagant and easy. These give and take relationships created the modern global economy that we have today. The scars of the past still haunt the wounds of today. Third world countries are still struggling for survival while the well fed first world nations are aligning themselves together to maintain their dominance. While the obvious means of colonization may not be visible, the same characters are in control.

The Rise of Colonialism and its Impact on Modern Society

Colonialism and Slavery.
Colonialism and Slavery “l hate imperialism. I detest colonialism. And I fear the consequences of their last bitter struggle for life. We are determined, that our nation, and the world as a whole, shall not be the play thing of one small corner of the world. ” (Sukarno) When it comes to taking over another country, the selfish reasons behind it cloud the minds of the colonizers into thinking that what they are doing is to the advantage of the victims.
The lived experience of Okonkwo and Linda challenges the argument that defenders of colonialism and slavery made by proving that the colonizers trying to civilize and ring Christianity to the colonized countries worsened their lives instead of improving them by pushing out their culture and religion, and physically and mentally abusing them; through discovering the reasons for colonialism, then comparing them to the stories of Okonkwo and Linda the truth of what colonialism said it was doing and what it actually was doing to a colonized or slave person. There are many reasons why colonialism and slavery have thrived for many years.
Westerners wanted to beat the competitor within the Western countries. White upremacy is a major advocate in the onslaught of colonialism. The idea of racial entitlement and genetic inferiority is what pushes the movement of imperialism. Blatantly narcissistic gauges of the worth of non-European peoples – skin color, fashions in or lack of clothing – receded in importance; measurements of cranial capacity, estimates of railway mileage, and the capacity for work, discipline, and marking time became the decisive criteria by which Europeans Judges other cultures and celebrated the superiority of their own. Adas, 146) Europeans considered all ther cultures “uncivilized” and wanted to bring to them the idea of modernity. No other culture lives up to the mindset of European culture and they know that and use that to their advantage.

Colonialism and Slavery

Colonialism and Young Black Kid.
At the end of the novel Guerrillas, by V. S Naipaul, Jane, a British woman from London is murdered by Bryant, a young black kid native to the Caribbean island where the novel is based. Behind this murder we could discuss guilt and responsibility through different perspectives. Can we really hold Bryant responsible for his actions? Jane is a woman who is not content with herself, she is naive as Roche defines her and out of balance-out of touch with herself and the perception of reality. She is careless about people’s feelings and ignorant about the consequences of her actions.The fact that she wavers from passion and pleasure through meaningless sexual encounters to rape and violence are all feelings that remind her she’s alive, nothing less and nothing more.

Consequently, being in a post-colonial society full of animosity and frustration, all her mistakes and imprudent actions lead her to her own death. This is an example of how the presence and impact of “the powerful colonizer” damaged not only those around him but themselves, in this case Naipaul’s character of Jane is a representation of the indifference and self-centered post-colonial personality of the dominant race in the colonized territories.In conclusion we could argue that Jane did act in a selfish and unconcerned manner. Conscious that she had the alternative of returning to her homeland, escaping the island’s reality and trying to bring back with her an adventurous experience full of love affairs and careless decisions, she unawarely clashed with the islanders; a people whose disadvantages in life were reflected through anger, despair, emotional repression and a hopelessness that Bryant and Jimmy embodied.Naipaul tries to engage the reader into feeling empathy towards the latter characters by placing Jimmy first, as the frustrated revolutionary who lives his own lie and only wishes to see himself as a hero that satisfies the oppressed desire of revenge against the powerful dominant, whereas Bryant is the unfortunate native young child overwhelmed by hostility and thwarted dreams who could have become a better person if given the opportunity. In consideration of all these factors and circumstances, who is really to blame?

Colonialism and Young Black Kid

Africa During Colonialism.
Africa of course, would be colonized by the many Europeans. However, a lot of African groups/colonization would start too. They would start and older ones would be expanded. The slave trade had decreased due to British pressures and so Africa started trading more of other items with the rest of the world. This same thing was happening in Asia and the Middle East too. In South Africa, the Zulu kingdom would be formed, and in Western Africa, an Islamic caliphate, Sotto Caliphate would be formed. Many of these civilizations were being formed by a bunch of African peoples around the continent.
At first, In Southern Africa, there were the Unsung people, Just farmers and cattle herders that existed for a very long time. Soon, however, a drought would strike, hurting their agriculture. This caused the end of the Unsung people. A military genius and leader, Shake Zulu would take control and create a new civilization, the Zulu people, who, compared to all other tribes In Southern Africa, was the most powerful and formidable, because of its strict military drills and practice and they even used ox-hide shields. The Zulu warriors expanded their kingdom, by attacking many other tribes and
Invading them, taking their cattle, children and women. Parts of the Zulu, they split off making their own military bands and they too did the same thing as the Zulu. Soon, this made so many new kingdoms going up all the way to Lake Victoria. As this increased, so did the number of refugees and terrified, depressed people from these To stop the Zulu tribe’s growth and power, two kingdoms formed, Swaziland to the north and Lesotho to the east, which was made up of many refugees who came to those mountains there. Both Lesotho and Swaziland exist today.

Shake successfully made a national identity and a nation in just 10 years of rule. He took all the young people in the nation and split them into deferent groups, called regiments, based on age. These people of the regiment lived with each other and they all celebrated Shake. Etc. They celebrated his rule and they were all heavily disciplined. Cow herds were a measure of wealth in this kingdom. Meanwhile, in the Western Savannah of Africa, there was a big religious struggle. Islam was prevalent over there. However, that was only In the cities and trade areas, ND not in the rural areas.
The rural areas still followed regular customs. At first, Islam allowed people to mix their older beliefs with Islam. Now however, Psalmists started denying this idea of allowing them to have their customs and wanted them to follow pure Islam. They made a “holy war”, called Jihad, which made Assaults take over many rural and other new lands where they enforced Islamic laws and spread the religion. These Islamic retorts first took place in the Hausa states to northern Nigeria. A leader in the Hausa states, Susann Dan Food, called a lot of the kings there, unbelievers of religion or Islam and led people away from god.
He led a Jihad on the King of Gobi, overthrowing him. A lot o f Muslims Joined to gather to spread Islam and spread it all around Hausa. All this Islam would come together to make a caliph under the capital city of Sotto, called the Sotto Caliphate. The Sotto Caliphate became a center for teaching Islam and reform. It added many new centers, quickly, to teach Curtain and Islamic subjects to boys. Many people were attracted to it because of the Sotto library, which was pretty huge. Muslims ere allowed people to follow their own religion but had to pay a special tax.
They were not allowed to do their tribal dances and rituals and any who opposed the spread of the Jihad were killed, slaved or converted. The Sotto caliphate sent off tons of slaves for the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, mainly women and children. Slaves mainly farmed, and so this allowed women to actually leave the home this time. Sotto not only sent a lot of slaves, but it also had a lot of slaves in itself too. In fact, it had more slaves than any other American commonly. Napoleon would come and fight in Egypt. This would last in Egypt as a great triumph for the Europeans and a great loss for the Egyptians.
After Napoleon left Egypt from his losses, Muhammad All took rule. Muhammad All took rule of Egypt. He modernized and industrialized Egypt, making it follow a lot of the Western styles. He increased trade of Egypt. He brought a lot of education to Egyptians, and allowing them to replace the old aristocracy. He replaced all the European experts and sellers of products with Egyptians. However, one bad thing was, that he made a burden on the peasants to give military and labor service. The army and Egypt was making its own textiles, paper, weapons, military uniforms.
Seeing this western movement, many groups in Egypt, of Islam mixed with this Western Culture. For example, European technical manuals were translated to Arabic. Small was the grandson of Muhammad All. He was more keen on westernizes than All. But his efforts, in the end, would Just create a bunch of Egyptian debt to French and British banks. At first, in his first 10 years of rule, it was all good with a lot of wealth thanks to increased trade, more exports, new irrigation annals, railroads 800 miles, postal service and Cairo.
However, after the American Civil War, exports went down again and debt would be one of the reasons for French and British partial occupation of Egypt. Ethiopia was Christian for 1 500 years. They too were trying to modernize themselves. Ethiopians Emperor, Terrors II of Ethiopia was the one who first started Westernizes and ordered a lot of weapon purchases from Europe and also encouraged some local maturating. One time, they even made cannon that could shoot a half ton shell with the help of Protestant missionaries.
However, they tried to get some more weapons by holding British officials hostage and demanding for weapons, but the British would end up actually invading Ethiopia. Terrors would commit suicide to prevent capture. Then the British would withdraw, and then King Haynes would take the throne. King Haynes took over a lot of the lost land of Ethiopia, except for one major land part, Shoo Kingdom, ruled by King Moonlike. The beginning events of Rupee’s scramble for Africa were when France took over Algeria. Algeria originally was a major supplier of olive oil and grain to France.
They even gave them grain to Napoleon to take over Egypt. Now, France still owed them for this and several disputes took place. The new French government wanted to show nationalism with an easy overseas victory. However, the struggle for Algeria would go on for 18 years, even after French government would be overthrown again. Bad al- Qatar was an Algerian holy man who led them against France but he would die, weakening and nearly ending their 18 year struggle. However, conflict in the mountains would take place for 30 years. Settlers would then come in and kill off 140,000 people.

Africa During Colonialism

Neocolonialism.
Introduction Neocolonialism is the practice of using capitalism, globalization, and cultural forces to control a country (usually former European colonies in Africa or Asia) in lieu of direct military or political control. Such control can be economic, cultural, or linguistic; by promoting one’s own culture, language or media in the colony, corporations embedded in that culture can then make greater headway in opening the markets in those countries. Thus, neocolonialism would be the end result of relatively benign business interests leading to deleterious cultural effects.
Neocolonialism describes certain economic operations at the international level which have alleged similarities to the traditional colonialism of the 16th to the 20th centuries. The contention is that governments have aimed to control other nations through indirect means; that in lieu of direct military-political control, neocolonialist powers employ economic, financial, and trade policies to dominate less powerful countries. What is the social phenomena neocolonialism?
It is a set of political, economic, social and colonial arrangements or systems which continue to exist in a society, managed and controlled by little local property-ruling class on behalf of their corresponding foreign property-ruling class. The arrangement is a phenomenon which is heavily imposed on the majority of the people who remain poor, unemployed, low income-earned, unskilled, and uneducated. These arrangements designate a continuation of colonialism wherein the majority of the people are denied control and management of the bulk of their wealth. Describe the origins of neocolonialism.

The political-science term neocolonialism became popular usage in reference to the continued European control the economic, cultural, of African countries that had been decolonized in the aftermath of the Second World War (1939–45). As a political scientist, Nkrumah theoretically developed and extended, to the post–War 20th century, the socio-economic and political arguments presented by Lenin in the pamphlet Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917), about 19th-century imperialism as the logical extension of power to meet the financial investment needs of the political economy of capitalism.
What are the effects of neocolonialism? In effect, third world rulers give concessions and monopolies to foreign corporations in return for consolidation of power and monetary bribes. In most cases, much of the money loaned to these LDCs is returned to the favored foreign corporations. Thus, these foreign loans are, in effect, subsidies to crony corporations of the loaning state’s rulers. This collusion is sometimes referred to as “the corporatocracy. Organizations accused of participating in neo-imperialism include the World Bank, World Trade Organization and Group of Eight, and the World Economic Forum. Various “first world” states, notably the United States, are said to be involved. An insider’s first-hand description of the corporatocracy is described in the book Confessions of an Economic Hitman by John Perkins. Name at least one way in which neocolonialism can be rectified?

Neocolonialism

Ethnic Literature and Postcolonialism In Barta’s “Gadis Tangsi”.
The definition of ethnic literature “is literature like any other, except that it contains ethnic references.” (Reilly p.2). Another definition of ethnic literature is when there is a literature work that contain religious beliefs, racial issues, linguistics, or cultural heritage. In another word, ethnic literature is the literary work that includes particular culture, beliefs, or linguistics distinction. Postcolonial literary theory draws attention in the issue of cultural difference emerging in the society.
One of the issues which may often appear during the class discussion is hybridity. It seems that people who have been faced by the fact that they are living in a ‘hybrid world’ tend to be confused by their real status. They realize for their interest, but they can not avoid the possibility becoming ‘in between’. Although , they are included into one part, the native part, but on the other hand they can not deny the deep feeling to be pleasant considering themselves different with the other. There is a kind of more value they have compared with their surround, and they think it is worthy to be kept. Of course, this feeling comes into their mind by some reasons.
There must be an additional value added into their original culture. The additional value may be in the form of a new ideology, belief or view which are brought by the dominating. The dominated rarely conscious with the impact. They usually only feel that it is a natural process which become the impact of daily social interaction they are engaged in. Another issue which emerges in postcolonial discussion is about dominated-dominating one. We can not expect who actually take the role as ‘dominating’ or ‘dominated’.

The practice may turn over, the dominated may become the dominating in the same time toward different object, vice versa. We are also introduced by ‘Otherness’ theory. It makes someone consider that she or he are different from the other, and other people is not the same with her or him. Gadis Tangsi tells a story about a girl life, namely Teyi. She is a Javanese girl who grew up in the Javanese tradition. She lives with his parents and sibling in tangsi area. She was taught to become an obedient girl by her mother with many limitations as a girl. She helps her mother to sell fried bananas every day.
Teyi finds herself limited by some rules which are considered as the right rules for her mother. She even does not know how ‘love’ or how to be ‘loved’ by a man. She was taught to be a polite woman. She finally finds who she is when she is introduced to Putri Parasi by Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi who has helped her. That is the beginning of her new experience to recognize a new world, the world that she has never imagined before. Putri Parasi teaches her everything to be ‘a good lady’. Putri Parasi likes Teyi for her politeness. She more likes Teyi after being saved when her disease comes immediately. Putri Parasi expects to teach her how to behave well.
She even teaches Teyi to speak Dutch. Teyi starts to be able to read and write. Putri Parasi really wants to prepare her to be taken to Surakarta Keraton and introduced her to a man who will be married with her. She plans to make Teyi deserve to have a husband from Keraton families. In the novel Gadis Tangsi written by Suparto Brata, we can see some unexpected phenomenon occur. It makes me realize that actually there are still many things covered even by what Javanese people considered as ‘budaya adiluhung’.
The word ‘politeness’, ‘hospitality’ and ‘dignity’ which come into people mind when they heard about Javanese culture become blur after they read this novel. Javanese woman who is considered as an obedient woman and become a mercy for whom takes her as a wife may be surprised by what Suparto tells about Teyi and Dumilah. He brings them in this novel as representative of Javanese woman character, in different point of view. However, the story about them, for me, is far from the stereotype of common Javanese women (may be just a few). The feeling of ‘in between’ seem to be experienced by Teyi. She starts to know about how the way the higher status people behave since she meets Putri Parasi.
Teyi realizes that her life style is quite different from her, and she is glad when she knows that Putri Parasi does not mind introducing this new culture to her. From this intentional interaction, after she is taught how to behave like ‘putri bangsawan’, Teyi starts to consider she has a chance to be the same with them. Even she lives with her parents, she starts to consider that she is better than them. She has been raised from the lower part. She has more power than the people in the house. The very obvious impact of this teaching actually appears when Teyi has been left by Putri Parasi. After she passed away, Teyi become independent from the influence of Putri Parasi.
Although, there are still some traces of her teaching inside Teyi which reflect in the way she behaves. She seems take the dominating position over her husband, Sapardal. Sapardal feeling about his lower position when they have been married becomes the cause of the divorce. Only two days of marriage, and Teyi considers that she has a right to sue divorce, while Sapardal can only keep silent without any comment. In this relationship, Sapardal as a man who actually considered as ‘the dominating’ take the role as ‘the dominated’. He does not feel on the same level with Teyi. He admits that he has no power compared to Teyi. He even has no courage to touch her in their first night of marriage.
Here, we can see the role between man and woman has shifted. Brata seems to show us that the role of people in the society is like running on the moving wheel. The dominating and dominated are only a symbol of someone position, which also can be shifted based on where we are standing. Sapardal may fail in maintaining his position as superior in front of Teyi. The cultural change also appears in this novel. Sexual intercourse is not considered as a sacral any longer for almost all the women in this novel. During my reading, I wonder if I read Indonesian culture literary work, especially belong to Javanese one.
However, Brata wrote the novel using the Indonesian condition in the past, in the colonial occupation. In this situation, it is not easy to determine which one who still hold the original value since the influence of other ideology come into the life in that simple way. The force of a new ideology input is not directly felt in this novel. The indigenous people enjoy the acculturation between the dominated and the dominating. It also happens in the shifting of the way they see sexual intercourse actually is. What we call as a taboo becomes commonly conducted by the people. Teyi is defined as a free woman, even she has been married and becomes a wife of Sapardal, and she breaks the rule by having intercourse with Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi.
It seems that she wants to take a revenge to Dumilah who is considered had cheated her by having romantic affair with her master. Sapardal can not do anything. He has failed to become a good husband. This thinking is from his own side. When we look at this phenomenon, again, Teyi proves that she has had a power over a man from her own society. She starts to have a right to consider a man like Sapardal is not at the same level with her. However, in my opinion it will not happen if Sapardal never has the way of thinking. Actually, he has thought that she is great and different from the other woman in his environment before they are married. That makes he has no courage to touch her at their first night.
It also makes Teyi feels not being regarding or respecting as a wife. She thinks that Sapardal has no desire toward her, and she thinks that it is better to ask divorce. What a short way of thinking! I found that Teyi has put a wrong way of thinking about what Putri Parasi had taught to her. It seems that she does not consider marriage as a sacral relationship any longer. ‘Love’ relationship has been considered as a ‘real’ relationship when we have passion to have sex with our couple. Is that so simple? That is the way Teyi think about love basically. It is shown also when she does not mind to have sex with her ex-master, Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi, and then she starts to love someone else, Ndara Mas Kus.
There is no any guilty feeling. Finally, we can conclude that there are three aspect of postcolonial reading for Gadis Tangsi has been discussed above. First, hybridity appears when Teyi finds herself has involved and being a part of Putri Parasi’s society, Keraton environment since she has been able to behave and speak like her, so she considers that she is a part of Putri community. While she has that feeling, she still can not avoid other people consideration about her who is only becoming a servant and will not become like them. Second, dominating feeling toward Sapardal comes into her mind. There is dominating-dominated in shifting model between them. It seems a denial for a man who usually considered as the dominating one, while Teyi proves that it can be shifted. Last, ‘Otherness’ theory also emerges in this novel.
After having taught to have attitude and behave like Putri Parasi model, Teyi finally considers herself different with other woman in her society. It appears in the way she treats Dumilah who is her old friend. She thinks that Dumilah has no right to become ‘a munci’ of Ndara Tuan Kapten Sarjubehi because she is not at the same level with her or Ndara.

Ethnic Literature and Postcolonialism In Barta’s “Gadis Tangsi”

The Tempest and Colonialism.
There is much in the topical dressing of The Tempest which relates it to the colonial adventure of the plantation of Virginia and with the exotic Bermuda. Critical opinion has varied as to whether The Tempest is closely related to colonialism as undertaken in the Jacobean period; E. E. Stool wrote in 1927 that ‘There is not a word in The Tempest about America… Nothing but the Bermuda, once barely mentioned as faraway places. On Stool’s side we can say that the action takes place somewhere between Tunis and Naples, presumably therefore in the Mediterranean, and that the harassers who are shipwrecked are returning from Tunis after a wedding, not in the least intending to set foot upon, let alone settle or conquer, uncivilized lands. Against this, we must say that The Tempest participates in a contemporary cultural excitement about the voyages to that Americas and the exotic riches of remote places.
There are traces in The Tempest of a number of colonial and Bermuda voyage narratives, such as Sylvester Sojourn’s ‘Discovery of the Bermuda’ (1610)1 , The Council of Virginians ‘True Declaration of the state of the Colonic in Virginia’ (1610), a utter by William Strachey which circulated under the title ‘True Repertory of the Wrack, but was not published until 1625, and stories collected by Samuel Purchase in Purchase his Pilgrimage (1613). Scallion’s god Settees is reported from Magellan voyage as being a Patagonian deity.
There is little doubt that the extraordinary shipwreck of some would-be Virginian colonists on the Bermuda flavors Shakespearean The Tempest. Shakespearean patrons the Earls of Southampton and Pembroke were investors in the Virginia Company. The Essex group at court supported a Protestant-expansionist foreign logic which did not suit King James, who was anxious not to antagonist Spain. Relations with Spain were one of the main reasons that James executed the Elizabethan imperial hero Sir Walter Raleigh, who championed the settlement of Guiana.

If the general romance of the sea voyage enters into The Tempest, as it does in Percales, this alone does not permit a view of the play as ‘about’ colonialism. The chief focus of a post-colonial investigation of The Tempest is through the character of Clinical, seen not as the ‘deformed slave’ of the dramatist personae but as a native of he island over whom Prosper has imposed a form of colonial domination. Scallion’s second speech states this case as clearly as could be wished.
On being summoned from his ‘sty by Prosper he responds with curses and proceeds to give his view of their interaction: island’s mine, by Accords my mother, I must eat my dinner. This Which thou tasks from me. When thou cam’s first Thou strokes me, and made much of me; wouldst give me Water with berries unit; and teach me how The Tempest and Colonialism By chauffeurs To name the bigger light, and now the less, That burn by day and night: and then I loved thee And showed thee all the qualities o’ thistle’s, The fresh springs, brine pits, barren place and fertile: Curd’s be I that that did so!
All the charms Of Accords, toads, beetles, bats, light on you! For I am all the subjects that you have, Which first was mine own King: and here you sty me In this hard rock, whiles you do keep from me The rest dissonant. We have already seen Prosper bullying his other servant, the spirit Ariel, into compliance with his wishes (1:2:240-300). Prospered dominance seems here on the edge of collapse, held in place by threats and the exercise of continual vigilance. He mess a man set uneasily at the apex of mutinous and unstable forces.
As the Boatswain has already made clear (although he does not know that Prosper has created the storm) the bases of authority are under question in The Tempest: What cares these roasters for the name of King? (1 Scallion’s narrative of Prospered conquest of the Island seems self-sufficient, and if Shakespeare were a cultural relativist this might stand as the position of Clinical within the play, but there is a crucial incident which seems to have turned the relationship between Prosper and Clinical sour, and this Clinical does not mention.
Prosper regards Clinical as genetically (rather than culturally) ‘inferior’, inherently incapable of civilized behavior: A devil, a born devil, on whose nature Nurture can never stick; This condemnation is mingled with the frustration of the teacher who has failed with a difficult pupil: Humanely taken, all, all lost, quite lost, On whom my pains, We have already seen throughout 1 :2 that Prosper is fussy and disciplinarian in his tutelage.
Miranda shares her father’s dislike of Clinical for the same reason: Clinical has attempted her rape, an event which he at least recollects with some satisfaction: Thou didst seek to violate The honor of my child Cal: Oho, Oho! wouldst had been done! Thou didst prevent me; I had peopled else This isle with Sicilians. Prosper keeps Clinical in order Witt ‘pinching’ ‘old cramps’ ‘acnes’ and so-on. Clinical is clearly afraid of him, and seeks to rebel.
Scallion’s plot with Stephan and Trillion is futile, as he comes to realize; he has fallen in with fools, who, in common with many Europeans have used alcohol to gain influence over the natives. Scallion’s plot forces the abandonment of Prospered magical/ritual masque, the moral authority of which is directed towards Miranda and Ferdinand chastity, a mint which Prosper repeatedly stresses. His fear for Marinara’s chastity demonstrates his anxiety to impose ‘civilized’ behavior on the island, and his fear that it may not hold; it is part of his power complex.
Paul Brown’s thoughtful article ‘This thing of darkness I acknowledge mine’3 seeks to ‘reputation’ The Tempest in order to examine its relationship to colonialist discourse. He discusses the lamina figure of Clinical, who combines the discourses of ‘masterfulness’ and ‘savaging’ (as well as the ‘salvage’ or wild man), ‘masterfulness’ having been a continual fear of authority, as expressed in the parish poor laws, and savages’ relating directly to the ‘uncivil’ who inhabit the areas at the edges of the dominant culture.
Brown states that ‘Prospered island is ambiguously placed between American and European discourse’ (p. 57). The discourse of the Americas is of course colonialist, but Prospered island is located in the Mediterranean. Clinical is seen as the victim of the language he has been taught: Whatever Clinical does with this gift announces his capture by it. ‘ (p. 61). Nevertheless, Clinical has the ability to represent his powerlessness and express his resentment. You taught me language; and my profit onto Is, I know how to curse. The red plague rid you For learning me your language.
He can use this language for his own ends, however, as his arguments with Prosper show. When Stephan and Trillion discover him Clinical repeats the attitudes and behaviors he regretted in his relationship with Prosper. I’ll show thee every fertile inch dissonant; and I will kiss thy foot: I prettier, be my god. While Brown reads The Tempest as a colonialist text, he cannot claim it as an unequivocal praise of or encouragement to the colonial enterprise. In a good discussion of the significance of the disruption of the masque scene, he states that
Prosper ‘has insisted that his narrative be taken as real and powerful-now it is collapsed, along with everything else, into the ‘stuff of dreams. The forging of colonialist narrative is, momentarily, revealed as a forgery. ‘ (p. 67). Though he claims Prospered narrative as ‘colonialist’, I would relate it to more general questions of authority Prosper himself will return to Milan to contemplate death: the Island has not been the scene of a colonial settlement, but the arena in which Prosper addresses the wrongs of his European past in order to establish a European future.
As with other ate plays by Shakespeare it is for the new generation to enact a reconciliation which was unavailable to Romeo and Juliet, for example. Miranda, Prospered daughter, and Ferdinand, the King of Naples’ son are to be married, and their optimism balances Prospered more Jaundiced view. Mir. How beauteous mankind is! O brave new world, That has such people unit! Pros. ‘Tts new to thee. (3. 1:183-184) Although Prosper succeeds in promoting this marriage, in punishing his betrayers, his brother Antonio, and Alonso, King of Naples, and bringing most of them to repentance, he confesses troubled.
Sir I am vexed Bear with my weakness; my old brain is (4:1 :158-159) At the end of the masque, and once the larger, island-wide performance has been enacted, he renounces his magical power and prepares to return home, no longer the divine controller of the island’s drama, but a mortal like other mortals. The Tempest has been insistently been read as Shakespearean farewell to the theatre, and the island functions well as an analogue for the stage (especially in view of Shakespearean adherence to the classical unities of time and place in this play), Just as Prosper can stand for the writer/director.
Neither the discourse of colonialism nor an auto-biographical interpretation can contain and exhaust the latencies of this subtle and beautifully constructed text. The Tempest remains a wonderfully written, highly atmospheric and fairly mysterious text. Shakespearean greatest strength is his ability to bring into his texts a complex nexus of views and debates which continue to resonate, and to defy resolution, for generations of play-goers and scholars. Despite Brown’s commitment to reading The Tempest as an ‘intervention’ in the colonialist debate, he concludes that it is ‘a site of radical ambivalence. ‘ (p. 68).

The Tempest and Colonialism

The Tempest Colonialism Essay.
Letters should not be known; riches, poverty, and use of service, none; contraction, succession, bourn, bound of land, tilt, vineyard, none. Gonzales topics were particularly relevant at the time of the play, because of New World colonization, and Europeans finally had the chance to start new governments and societies that reflected these idealistic belief. However, Gonzales imagining is also self-controlled and impractical, as Antonio and Sebastian are quick to notice; and perhaps this is Shakespearean statement about the simplicity of Utopian thought in general and also

Gonzales fantasy involves him ruling the island while seeming not to rule it, and in this he becomes a kind of parody of Prosper. We even see as soon as Clinical is first entered in the play that he plays a big role in the colonialism theme because he questions Prosperous authority on the island, saying “This island’s mine by Accords my mother, which thou task’s from me” (1. 2. 334-5). While he may be an exaggerative character, the accuracy of his criticisms questions authority and that of the colonial projects of the Europeans.

The Tempest Colonialism Essay