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Critically Examine the Arguments for and Against Deliberately Trying to Change Organizations

Critically Examine the Arguments for and Against Deliberately Trying to Change Organizations.
Assessed Essay OC4 “Critically examine the arguments for and against deliberately trying to change organizations” Introduction Before we begin to explore whether it is a worthwhile exercise to seek to change an organisation through a planned approach we must first begin with a definition of our terms. What might we mean by “deliberate”, “change” and an “organisation” To do so will help us explore under what circumstances planned change may be worthwhile or even possible. Huczynski & Buchanan (1991) define organizations as “social arrangements for the controlled performance of collective goals”.
This definition fits well those who would propose a deliberate change approach as it suggests an element of control of the organisation is possible. It also pictures the organisation as a separate entity whose goal is to control and that there is agreement by the members on what these goals should be. The fits with the roots of Organisational Development that the performance of the organisation can be enhanced by exerting control in some way over the structures, processes and individuals that make up the organisation.
Some would take issue however with the concept of the organisation as a seperate entity: Morgan (1986) “organizations are complex and paradoxical phenomena that can be understood in different ways” thus change of the organisation is a much more complex issue. In Morgans view, the idea that we can identify the elements that make up the organisation, in the same way that you might dismantle a machine, does not allow for the complexity that exists. As our view of the organisation affects our perspective our definition of the type of change we are examining will also affect the scope of our investigation.

Schein (1969) defines change as “the initiation of new patterns of action, belief and attitudes among substantial segments of the population”. Change is something that is started by someone (a change agent), but does not necessarily need to involve everyone. For Schein, change is deep rooted in that it goes beyond the surface level change of process and goes to the core of behaviour: beliefs and attitudes. Lippett (1973) uses a broader definition: “any planned or unplanned alteration to the status quo”.
We will explore whether, using such a broad definition, the planned approach might be more suitable to particular contexts. Our final term in need of definition is “deliberate change”. Ford & Ford (1995) define this as “when a change agent deliberately and consciously sets out to establish conditions and circumstances that are different from what they are now and then accomplishes that through some set or series of actions and interventions either singularly or in collaboration with other people”.
Thus deliberate change involves intent that distinguishes it from change which is not consciously produced and instead occurs as a series of side effects, accidents or unanticipated consequences of actions. The Arguments for Deliberate Change 1. Performance is enhanced by the controlled introduction of change rather than allowing it to happen haphazardly. It is worth noting that the classical approach, from which this argument derives, was developed during a period when the management approach was fairly reactive and adhoc.
The scientific approach to management was an attempt to create order and efficiency. Fayol (1949), suggested the role of mangers is to plan, organise, command, co-ordinate and control. Critics of the approach would attack the concept of leadership portrayed by Fayol and others e. g. Collins who speaks of “Level 5” leaders who are more servants than charismatic controllers; those who would look in the mirror when performance dips and praise their team for the successes achieved. Those who would act more as facilitators than controllers.
There is also wider criticism of the notion that planned change is good for organisations per se. This seems to be a notion that permeates much of OD literature, that individuals need to be controlled for change to be effective.. Croch et al challenges the view that because leaders see unprecedented turbulence they act as a buffer to the organisation to minimise this by resistance, denial or inaction. Leaders are inherently obstructionist in their stance. Burnes & Stalker (1961) found that rather than act as a blocker to change; leaders seized the opportunity to initiate action.
Thus one could argue that rather than needing to control individual action it may be more appropriate to allow individuals the freedom to seize the opportunities that prevail around them. One could also question the view that planned change is more effective than “unplanned” change. Studies examining the success of transformations have suggested that 66% of organisations fail in their change efforts (Sturdy 7 Grey (2003) 2. Change now takes place at an ever accelerating rate, if managers do not plan how to deal with change there is a danger that the organisation will be driven by vagaries of its environment.
Some critics would question the notion that change is as rapid and all pervasive as some writers would suggest. Weick (1985) would argue that the turbulence is only created in the perception of those who create the turbulence rather than by the events themselves. One could argue that rather than planned change perhaps there is a call for planned stability. Individuals may be getting tired of the changes that are imposed upon them and instead seek stability in their environment.
Some would argue change has always been with us, others would argue that stability is equally as prevalent. The notion that change is a given is built on Darwinian concept that all things evolve in a common way to attain improved circumstances. 3. Planned change is the most effective way to deliver the performance as organisations need long term strategic plans to enable them to attain the results they require. This build from a top down view of the organisation guided by a group of rational individuals who make decisions for the good of the organsiation and its members.
Taylor (1911) and his scientific view of management “the work of everyman is fully planned out by management” supported the concept of leaders as rational decision makers, fully able to plan every task of the workers who in turn simply carried out the tasks assigned to them. John Harvey-Jones and would support this managerialist position by building a picture of the “hero” manager fully capable of implementing any change they see fit. The argument also portrays the change process itself as rational capable of being controlled e. g.
Leighs (1988) who identifies a list of internal and external triggers to change that can enable the control to take place. Pettigrew (1985) criticises the approach for taking an acontextual, atheoretical and aprocessual stance: organisations are not this independent entity that the writers suggest. Clegg (1990) suggests organisations are embedded in a network of wider social relationships. Organisations don’t just reside in an environment; they are part of its fabric. Thus even if the leaders have the skills the control of the complexity would be beyond them.
There is also criticism aimed at the assumption that planned change results in the intended outcomes. Grevenhoest et al (2003) “The outcome of the change process is often different from what was planned and new projects are often started before previous ones have finished properly” Other studies have questioned the success rate of planned change in achieving their initial goals. What would be the “success rate” of unplanned change? How much change takes place as a reaction of internal and external forces rather than through some strategic planning process? 3.
Planned change enables the change agent and those implementing the change to take into account a range of issues that would not otherwise be included. Although this may be true it does not necessarily follow that this means they are able to influence or control these factors. The argument, by adopting a scientific approach assumes that by identifying the issues the individuals then have the skills and ability to manipulate the “issues” to make the change more effective. Such capacity, even if it is possible, presumes highly sophisticated skills. Would the individuals possess such skills? . Planned change enables leaders of the change to ensure that the changes are introduced in such a way that they are accepted by the individuals within the organisation. Ford & Ford (1995) point to the power of communication in driving change. “everything, including prevailing conditions and circumstances, is seen as created by and in communication… in the absence of communication there is no intentional change. ” Such communications follow fairly simple patterns and the drivers of change can use different types of conversation to make the changes happen.
At a more macro Level Lewin (1951) placed the individual in the group to which they belong which forms the individuals perceptions, feelings and actions. He maintained the status quo is held together by various field forces which, when identified could be strengthened or diminished to bring about the necessary change. By “unfreezing” the status quo, then “moving” to the new state and finally “re freezing” the changes become effective. These concepts seem to adopt a rather simplified view of individual behaviour and of the change process itself. They imply change can be mapped as a set of stages hat individuals go through and which can then be planned and controlled, e. g. by the use of communication techniques. Bandura (1986) questions this simplistic approach to individual behaviour and instead proposes a social cognitive view “ people are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically shaped and controlled by external stimuli…behaviour, cognitive and other personal forces and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants of each other. Arguments against Planned Change Burnes and Salauroo (1995) aim four criticisms at the planned change approach: 1.
Much of OD on which it is based was designed for top-down, autocratic; rule based organisations, which operated in a predictable and stable environment. Such a picture of the organisation is one that the management Guru’s of the 1980’s and 1990’s fought against (Peters & Waterman, Kanter) arguing instead for an organisation that was bottom up, that was built around team working rather than hierarchy. Involving matrix management and extended ps of control rather than vast hierarchical structures to exercises control over the workers.
Handy (2001) now argues that such vast hierarchical organisations will be few in numbers and instead the workforce will be epitomised by “fleas” living in some symbiotic relationship but over whom the large organisations have little control. Thus one should not attempt to apply the principles to a business environment that undergoes constant change and whose watchwords are consultation and facilitation rather than authority and control. However to suggest that all organisations have moved away from a top down, autocratic stance is perhaps a little naive.
Many may advocate a consultative approach but it is still the board of directors who make the strategic decisions. There is also the argument highlighted previously that the notion of rapid continual change is one of perception rather than concrete reality. 2. The focus of planned change tends to be on incremental change, taking place through a series of defined and controllable phases (Lewin) and so it is unable to incorporate radical transformational change (Schein) Planned change involves detailed diagnosis of the issues, action and then evaluation before further action and evaluation in an iterative cycle.
It recognises change needs to be self-sustaining. Quinn (1980) draws a picture of the executive who seeks out, through various channels, a range of data before proactively taking steps to “implant support”, form coalitions, and constantly re evaluate the direction of the organisation as he moved it gradually in the direction he seeks. Such planned change, could be very costly and labour intensive. Payne & Reddin’s study of a major change at a tobacco factory calculated the cost as 25-person manager years of OD.
Is such a cost justified in light of the research that suggests much of the changes would prove ineffective? In the case of rapid, radical change a coercive approach might be more appropriate than the planned approach. Does change really take place in such a controlled, phased way? Are change agents able to introduce change in such a controlled way? What about the role of power and politics? Buchanan & Badham suggested that politics is a reality and by necessity change agents have to get involved otherwise the changes are likely to fail.
However, would the change agent have the skills to engage in such behaviour successfully? If the change involves culture change, difficulties start at the analysis stage as culture is difficult to define therefore how can you then plan to make changes? Where would the start and end point be and how would you evaluate the differences? 3. Planned change makes the assumption that there is common agreement between all parties and that they all have a willingness and interest in making the changes.
It seems to adopt a unitarist approach to change that suggests organisations are essentially co operative, that little conflict exists amongst the members on the overall aims of the organisation. Both the pluralist and radical schools would argue much conflict exists in reality. The radical school might go as far as to suggest that the workers need protection from management, as the drivers of the two groups are completely different. Certainly the planned approach seems to view the managers as rational, altruistic individuals who always act for the good of the organisation and its members.
Bowman C. (1999) suggests that changes to the status quo tend to emerge from action and rarely come from strategic analysis. It is far better then for changes to take place as a stream of decisions over time than agreeing some common vision of the outcomes intended by the changes. The Marxist view would challenge this by suggesting that as their focus is on increasing profits, by necessity that involves the exploitation of the members of the organisation. 4.
The planned approach assumes the approach is suitable for all organisations. Pettigrew & Whipp (1991) instead suggest that no such universal rules exist and leading change actually involves a flow of actions that need to be appropriate to the context rather then working through some recipe for success as is suggested by some texts e. g. Leighs (1988) “Effective change: twenty ways to make it happen” Pettigrew (1985) criticises the approach for concentrating on change episodes rather than the “processual dynamics of changing”.
Few have undertaken longitudinal studies to explore the process of change which would enable you to place the changes in the context within which they occur: For Pettigrew it is these structures and contexts which give the changes “form, meaning and dynamic”. He also criticises planned change for assuming managers work to achieve an end state that is knowable and achievable whereas change is a complex process that doesn’t occur in bite size chunks. You need to explore the process of changing and not just the change itself.
This is perhaps rather a harsh criticism, as it was not suggested that the approach would suit all situations at all times. In fact the focus is very much on incremental change however even here critics question the basic tenets of the approach built on the idea that change takes place as a steady flow of incremental changes towards a common goal. Gersick (1991) suggests a “punctuated equilibrium paradigm” through which to view change to challenge the view that individual systems develop along the same path.
Gersick proposes the notion of periods of equilibrium punctuated by revolutionary periods that cause upheaval in the change process rather than some gradual incremental step to the end goal. Van de Van & Poole (1995) suggest that rather than take the “one shoe fits all approach” we need to look at the different perspectives through which writers view change and explore where they are inter related. One could also argue that the planned approach to change suggests that conflict needs to be eliminated and organisations need to strive for a smooth transition from one state to another.
The notion goes back to the notion that change occurs in phases and the concept that individuals reaction hen faced with change is to attempt to block it. There has also been much criticism of the planned approach in that, although it attempts to tackle “how to implement change” when it comes to specific guidance the writers provide little substance. Recipes for success do exist however they are very general in their approach e. g.
The planned approach seems to view change as episodic, the result being that it takes the view that the organisation exists in a stable environment which is interrupted by periods of change which need to be controlled to ensure a smooth transition from one state to another and recreate the stability. The role of the change agent is to create the change by focusing on leverage points that will help ensure any conflict is resolved. It is possible however to take a different perspective: Weick & Quinn (1999) Organisations are not specific entities but social processes, which are emergent and constantly changing rather than inert.
Change instead of punctuated equilibrium is a pattern of endless incremental modifications that is driven by a range of internal and external forces. As such rather than using a set recipe for success the individuals involved in the change need a vast range of skills to enable them to adapt to the forces affecting them. Change is not an end state but a process that is cyclical. The role of the change agent is to facilitate rather than create, to redirect the change that already takes place rather than create change.
However Weick and Quinn argue that because episodic change examines change at the macro level and continuous change at the micro level it is possible to reconcile the two approaches. “ Change is a mixture of reactive and proactive modifications, guided by purposes at hand, rather than an intermittent interruption of periods of convergence”. Collins (1998) “change and continuity are not alternative objective states…. Because they are typically coexistent…what constitutes change or continuity is perspective dependent”
One could ask the question: Do managers need to learn how to manage change or “enhance stability and learn to manage continuity if they want to survive? ” References Armenakis, A. A. and Bedeian A. G. (1999) Organizational Change: a Review of Theory and research in the 1990s. Journal of Management 25 (3) 293-315. Bandura, A. 1986 Social Foundations of thought and Action: a social cognitive theory. Bowman, C. (1999) Action Led strategy and managerial self-confidence. Journal of Managerial Psychology 7/8 555-568. Buchanan, D. and Badham, R (1999) Politics and organizational change: the lived experience.
Human Relations 52 (5) 609-629. Burnes, B. 2000 Managing change: a strategic approach to organisational dynamics. Collins, D. (1998) Organizational Change: Sociological Perspectives. Doolin, B. (2003) Narratives of Change: Discourse, Technology and Organization Organization 10 (4). Ford, J. D. and Ford, L. W. (1995) The role of conversations in producing intentional change in organizations. 20 (3) 541-570. Francis. H and Sinclair. J. (2003) A processual analysis of HRM-based change. Organization 10 (4) 685-700. Gersick, C. J. G. 1991) Revolutionary change theories: a multilevel exploration of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm. Academy of Management Review 16 (1) 10-36. Gravenhorst, K. M. B. Werkman, R. A. & Boonstra. J. J. (2003) The change capacity of Organisations: general assessment and Five Configurations. Applied Psychology 52 (1) 83-105. Greenwood, R. and Hinings, C. R. (1996) Understanding radical Organizational Change: Bringing together the old and new institutionalism. Academy of Management Review 21 (4) 1022-1054. Hardy, C. (1996) Understanding Power: bringing about strategic change.
British Journal of Management 7 (special issue):S3-S16. Hoskings, D. M. and Anderson, N 1992 Organizational change and innovation: Psychological perspectives and practices in Europe. Petigrew, A. and Whipp, R,1993 Managing Change for competitive success. Pettigrew et al (2001) Studying Organizational Change and development: Challenges for future research. Academy of Management Journal 44 (4) 697-713 Quinn, J. B. (1980) Managing strategic change. Sloan Management Review 21 (4) 67-86. Rajagopalan, N. and Spreitzer, G. M. 1996 Toward a theory of strategic change: a multi-lens perspective and integrative framework.
Academy of Management Review 22 (1) 48-79. Sturdy, A. and Grey , C. (2003) Beneath and Beyond organizational change management: exploring alternatives 10 (4) 651-662. Tsoukas, H. (1998) Chaos, complexity and organization theory Organization 5 (3) 291-313. Van de Van A. H. and Poole, M. S. (1995). Explaining development and change in Organizations. Academy of Management Review 20 (3): 510-540. Weick, K. E. and Quinn, R. E. (1999) Organizational change and development. Annual Review of Psychology 50: 361-386. Weick K. E. (2000) Emergent Change as a universal in organizations in “Breaking the code

Critically Examine the Arguments for and Against Deliberately Trying to Change Organizations

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Socrates Arguments Crito

Socrates Arguments Crito.
The Platonic ‘Death of Socrates Dialogues’, are a quartet of important and influential conversations written by Plato, but told through the eyes of his mentor Socrates. Written in 386BC, they tell the story surrounding the Socrates being charged by the state for piety and corruption of the youth. They are conversations between Socrates, his friends, and his censors, the rulers of Athens. Socrates has found guilty of these crimes and after failing to convince the Athenian statesmen that he had been wrongfully accused, and sentenced to death.
The third story from the quartet is ‘Crito’ where Socrates chats with his wealthy friend Crito, who after bribing a guard, offers to help Socrates escape his sentence. Socrates refuses, and the dialogue throws up a few moral arguments where he explains his reasons to Crito, Socrates argues that it is necessary for the state to punish him as he has not acted within the laws that govern Athens. After all, he has faced the serious charge of worshipping false gods, and by passing these views on to his young followers, further charge with corrupting them.
As he is a ighly respected citizen within Athens, he thinks that he should lead by example and take his punishment. After all, he knew the laws and more than likely and knew what punishment he would incur if caught. No one is above the law. The laws are set by the state in order for citizens to follow a code of behaviour. Failure to adhere to such laws could lead to destruction of the state and it is right that the government made and example of him.

He thinks that if laws are broken, then the ruling class should have the powers to deal with the lawbreakers, otherwise what is the point having he laws, or indeed the state who police the laws in place. He also argued that he has been privileged to be part of the state of Athens and had received all the benefits that come with being a citizen of such an institution. Although the benefits are available to all Athenians, on the premise that you obey its laws. The state that had been so good to him over his 71 years of life, and the laws there provided him and his family with sanctuary.
The state provided security for his parents to marry and to bring him up safely. The state also provided him with the ducation of which made him the man he was. He was using this education against the state by teaching youths to think differently about the gods that the Athenians worshipped. He uses the analogy that the relationship between he, or indeed anyone else and the state of Athens was like that of parent and child. Children should obey their parents, therefore citizens should obey the state. By escaping prison, this would not be obeying the state so he chooses to stay put.
He argues that the state is in fact more important than parents or ancestors, because it is the state that enables its itizens to nurture. This argument is probably not very sound. To say that parents are similar to the state is not accurate. You are born to parents and are expected to comply with state procedure while living there. Occasionally within family life, there can be systematic physical abuse from parents which often goes unreported. Generally you do not get physically abused by the state, unless of course you are unlucky to live in somewhere that shy away from democracy.
By being born into a family, rules are not set as stone, and as a child you are expected in a way not always to act to these rules. Usually there is more leniency within the family when it comes to rule breaking than if you break a state law. He also argues that anyone born into the state and benefiting from the laws of the state has a duty to not to do anything that may help destroy the state, and by escaping this would have a detrimental effect on the state and it laws. He argues that although he was born in Athens, there were no laws stopping him from leaving.
Simply by choosing to live there all his live, he unwittingly enters an implied contract and must adhere to the laws of the state, otherwise face the punishment. He chose ot to live in Sparta or Crete, he chose to live in Athens, so must have satisfaction for the the state, therefore its laws. If he did not agree with the laws, then he would have to prove to the rulers of Athens that they were unjust. Although he tried to convince the the judges that his conviction was unjust, it is within the interests of the state for them to overlook his thoughts and label him a corrupter of the state.
To avoid corrupting the state further, he chose to take his punishment of death by hemlock and not take up Crito’s offer of help to escape as that would be doing something unjust, hile his sentence in his eyes was unjust. In other words, two wrongs do not make a right. It could be said that Socrates thinks being born into state and reaping the benefits of being a citizen. If this was the case, he could be expected to do anything the state asks him to do as he lives there, and is by living there he has a social contract bestowed on him.
There are many moral instances where it is probable that he may not adhere to this tacit agreement, for example, doing wrong by his family. Socrates had the opportunity to except banishment from the state of Athens but chose not to. After all Athens was his home and although he is a respected figure within the state, he was unsure if he would be happy in another state. They would know of his conviction, which basically is a charge saying he did not adhere to state laws, and brandished a trouble maker.
This could make things uncomfortable for him to settle down as he may not be accepted or respected in the manner that he had been in Athens. However, he decided to stand up for himself and try to convince the judges that his views are correct but fail, so accepts his punishment. Even although he thinks the sentence is njust he sees no advantage in escaping. His reputation would be in tatters and would be remembered as a coward who instead of taking his punishment, chose to run away and live a life of obscurity.
Even although he thinks he is being victimised, eluding his punishment he would also be breaking the laws of the state and is still under social contract to obey these laws. By becoming political martyr, he is making a stand against the state while adhering to the laws of the state. Socrates believed his argument to the jury that convicted him was enough to prove the charges were unjust. However when convicted he did not plead to be spared the death sentence as this would have meant that he would have been acting unjust, by accepting that he had wronged.
He argues that there would be no advantage escaping prison. He would be acting unjustly after being convicted unjustly. Those helping him escape would be endangering their lives in doing so. He had lived in Athens all his life, so the thought of living somewhere less civilised was not appealing. He would be seen by his many followers as a man not true to himself and would be deemed a coward. As a man of virtue, he accepted his fate by drinking the poison hemlock thus osthumously ensuring his family and friends would not be harmed and that his reputation as an honourable man was intact.
Socrates puts forward the first instance of social contract theory known. Law makers since have used social contracts to curtail and nurture human behaviour, which many people find unjust. Although in some instances these contracts have been challenged successfully, a couple of examples being the abolition of slavery and women having the same rights as men. Whilst Socrates was unsuccessful in his challenge against he died a man who stood up for his morals and beliefs and possibly the worlds first political martyr.

Socrates Arguments Crito

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Assess The Arguments For And Against Foreign Direct Investment

Assess The Arguments For And Against Foreign Direct Investment.
The topic of Foreign Direct Investment has both positive and negative debates in the increasingly globalised financial environment. The benefits of such movements include; increased employment levels, freer flow of capital, stimulating the local economy, and overcoming impediments to trade, whereas the negative implications are impeding upon national sovereignty, the ‘race to the bottom’, political instability, and the impact of Greenfield investment upon the environment.
The direction of this essay will be firstly defining the concept of foreign direct investment, analysing the benefits, then arguments against foreign direct investment, finally displaying the infinite benefits of foreign direct investment across the globe. Foreign direct investment became a prominent practice in the 1980’s with the phenomenon of globalisation and the deregulation of many financial markets. “Foreign direct investment implies the acquisition and exertion of a significant control over a foreign firm” (Moosa, 2004, p. 02) and can be through either vertical or horizontal foreign direct investment (henceforth referred to as FDI); measurement of what is deemed significant control varying between nations.
The World Trade Organisation outlines FDI provisions, with the Uruguay round resulting in the outlining that restricts domestic content requirements. FDI is now the largest source of private capital reaching developing nations- the types, sector, source and duration of business (refer to appendix one) “all have a bearing on the successfulness of the endeavour for the country” (Gardiner, 2002, p. ). Economic, political (government) and institutional factors are linked to FDI and allow for it to operate either successfully or unsuccessfully, including the area of income level (Wint and Williams, 2002, p. 363); which can reduce poverty levels, according to Jenkins 2005; through the increase in growth and employment on the condition that this does not result in an increase in earnings being unevenly distributed. FDI is said to boost economic activity through total factor productivity growth (UNIDO, 2005, p. 2).

It may also assist a country’s structural transformation such as financing modernisation and expansion of infrastructure and industries according to Pfeffermann 2002, which is of especial benefit to developing host nations. The openness of economies- freer flow of capital between nations expectedly influences positively the amount of FDI i. e. , absence of capital controls allows an organisation to fund unrestricted overseas ventures according to Kyrkilis and Pantelidis 2003, allowing firms to enter markets that they would otherwise be unable to.
The exchange rate can also be a favourable (or unfavourable) facilitator for firms from wealthier countries entering other nations, where the rate may mean that the entering nation has a larger(or smaller) amount of capital for their FDI – creating economies of scale. FDI requires significant amounts of capital and can also result in increased capital abundance through low interest rates in the host country.
Countries such as China and India are becoming an increasingly more attractive market due to their stable political environment, favourable macroeconomic polices and availability of labour which can increase employment in that particular region, according to McDonald, Tuselmann and Heise, 2003, as well as their close locations to large export markets according to a study by AtKearney 2004; China leading America as the most attractive candidate for FDI in all sectors, showing the current trends in FDI.
There is an importance of host country institutions in equity ownership decisions (Asiedu and Esfahani, 2001, p. 648), that allow the movements of FDI to take place. It can often benefit the host country and their institutions, such as government, educational institutions and legal systems, through increasing funds. If the government has local content requirements in place, “may stimulate the local domestic economy by creating demand for local intermediate and primary products” (Lahiri and Ono, 1998, p. 45), hence proving to be more of an advantage to the development of the economy of FDI recipients.
One of the main advantages of FDI is that it is said to have decreased the severity of the 1990’s Asian economic crisis according to Athukorala, 2003, through the diversification of investment within the region, allowing Asia to decrease the impact of the financial collapse on six of the major regions in Asia, and has allowed them to free up their economies and become more liberalised in attracting FDI (—, 1998, p. 1) into their boarders. FDI provides a way that the firm can overcome impediments to trade such as tariff barriers to overcome exporting blockages through setting up within a customs union and reaching their desired markets, as well as gaining technological knowledge transfer, location specific advantages, intangible resources according to Kyrkilis and Pantelidis 2003, and perhaps comparative advantages.
Gross domestic profit allows a country to measure the outputs, and hence the effects that FDI is having upon the nation – if the unit increases, this means that the country is reaping more financial benefit from the facilitation of investments into the country, according to Morgan and Katsikeas 1997, and the advantage of FDI is evident. The prominence of FDI clearly shows that it is successful, and that the capital flows between nations and willingness to locate subsidiaries overseas have amplified since the 1980’s as a result of its achievements (refer to appendix two).
Disadvantages of lead to the debate that FDI may be viewed as a threat to the national culture and impede upon national sovereignty, where the foreign firm views itself as more superior than the domestic firm and its interests. If the gains are not synergistic, then there may be a conflict of interest- further impacting upon national sovereignty, according to Wint and Williams 2005; and Hill 2005.
Wint and Williams, 2002 note that Singapore with the help of Richard Vernon endeavoured successfully in enticing FDI as per his theory of production factors, spurring a ‘race to the bottom’ (one of the most commented on disadvantages of FDI) as each competing country attempts to offer the most attractive incentives which essentially negatively impact upon the country’s economic advancement. Host governments may offer substantial taxation incentives for FDI’s within that nation; leading to “tax competition” (Lahiri and Ono, 1998, p. 44) where developing nations find themselves competing against each other to deliver the largest tax incentives.
According to Wint and Williams 2002, in 1998 of the145 regulatory alterations in 60 countries made, 94% of developing nations altered their polices to create a more favourable position for inward investing firms. In essence developed countries reap the benefits as they gain better tax breaks and other incentives to invest into the developing nations. This ‘race to the bottom’ leads to a decrease in potential profits for developing countries.
A lack of stability of constant FDI inflows can also harm developing nation’s economies- with a large once off economic benefit from the initial establishment of the investment, for example the building of a Greenfield site -hence it may throw off the country’s economic judgements. Political risk poses a threat in certain regions, where the company may be forced to close due to its link with particular home countries, for example, the recent conflict in Iraq has meant that many Western businesses in the area have been targeted with campaigns against them.
It may impact the stability of the fiscal framework and macroeconomic policies of the host country, as the governments may change often and policies along with them. According to the 2003 OECD Report, p. 168, countries with the largest amount of restrictions include Iceland, Canada, Turkey, Mexico, Australia, Austria, Korea and Japan (refer to appendix three), which are according to Hill 2005 consider wealthier nations.
The developing nations therefore are seen as more attractive candidates for FDI, according to Jenkins 2005, and hence compete with one another in their ‘race to the bottom’, as well as the act of regulatory arbitrage (Jenkins 2005) where a firm threatens to move its operations elsewhere so they may manipulate more favourable regulatory regimes. , where authors criticise that FDI’s success in developing nations is limited to the local ability to absorb FDI and the policy framework.
Distribution of FDI is a key reason why the World Bank criticises the phenomenon because it seemingly is concentrated in a few developing nations: The majority of countries according to Stiglitz as in Pfeffermann 2002, only benefit marginally from FDI, despite the sizeable increase in FDI since the 1980’s. The environmental impact of FDI and in particular those from Greenfield investment where the site is cleared to make place for the new factory can have disastrous effects upon the natural ecological environment of the host nation, and cultural way of life.
Sourcing of raw materials cheaply from the host country may mean that the natural environment is compromised for profit and much needed economical growth within the developing regions. The Internationalisation Theory notes that cost reduction is a major cause for FDI (Jalilian, 1996), and based around “market imperfections” (Hill, 2005, p. 224) whereby new markets are sought to fill the lack of a factor of production within the home country; i. e. raw materials, human capital etc, where in essence a large proportion of developing nations are taken advantage of, for example, Nike and Disney in the 1990’s.
The conclusion that can be brought forth from such evidence is that FDI has both negative and positive advantages in the form of increased employment levels, freer financial market flows, stimulation of local economies and overcoming impediments to trade, equalising a larger economical benefit reaped from FDI, whereas the disadvantages include loss of national sovereignty, the ‘race to the bottom, political instability and impacts of Greenfield investment upon the local environment.
It is evident, however, that the advantages of FDI far outweigh the limitations that are presented, through the increase in wealth, the spurring of economical development and increased activity in developing nations, essentially, benefiting the globalised financial and business environment.

Assess The Arguments For And Against Foreign Direct Investment

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Ethical Arguments for Wal-Mart

Ethical Arguments for Wal-Mart.
Wal-Mart went public in October of 1970. Their IPO was 3,000 shares at a price of $16. 50 per share. By having a smart business model and keeping cost low though a variety of tactics including low employees wages and benefits, Wal-Mart has been able to sustain an incredible rate of growth. Since their IPO Wal-Mart has undergone eleven full 2-1 stock splits. That means that just one share of their IPO has turned into 2,048 current shares. The current market value of Wal-Mart stocks on the NYSE is $62. 0 per share. If an investor bought just one share in 1970 for $16. 50, today that investment would be worth $127,590. 40. In addition to rising stock value, investors receive a quarterly cash dividend payment that was paid out at $0. 2725 per share as of July 2009. People start and invest in businesses to make money. Wal-Mart should concentrate on serving their shareholders by producing profits because the business would not exist in the same capacity without their investment.
They have certainly done this, keeping their expenses low by paying minimum wage and limiting employee benefits in addition to a number of other influential factors has allowed Wal-Mart to recognize large profits, which serve its shareholders well. By paying employees low wages and limiting benefits in addition to savvy business planning Wal-Mart has grown into an incredibly profitable company. In 2010 they had revenues totaling $408,214,000,000 and more importantly they recognized a profit of $14,335,000,000.
Some of this profit is paid out to shareholders in the form of dividends but the vast majority is retained by Wal-Mart and reinvested. These retained earnings allow them to expand and open up stores all over the world. As they expand their operations they will employ more and more people. Wal-Mart has been known to open up stores in rural areas where unemployment rates happen to be especially high. By opening stores in these areas they are lowering unemployment and putting cash into the hands of people who desperately need it.

They currently operate more than 9,600 retail units in 28 countries around the world. They employ 2. 1 million people globally, including almost 1. 4 million in the United States alone. By generating an astounding amount of revenue and keeping there expenses as low as they can make them i. e. paying employees minimum wage and limiting benefits, Wal-Mart is able reinvest profits and open up new retail units that will employ lots of people who desperately need employment.

Ethical Arguments for Wal-Mart

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Accepted Arguments for Urban Walkability

Accepted Arguments for Urban Walkability.
Introduction
The theodolite oriented development attack is being adopted by many metropoliss around the universe, peculiarly those contested with transforming their auto dependant vicinities into more habitable and sustainable developments. The simplest manner to depict the rules of TOD harmonizing to Calthorpe ( 1993 ) is “moderate and high denseness lodging, along with complementary public utilizations, occupations, retail and services, concentrated in assorted – used development at strategic points along the regional theodolite system” . Yet, much as connectivity to regional significance through theodolite is of import, it is the communities’ close interaction, supported by a walkable environment that Calthorpe claims is the “key aspect” of any booming TOD.
Over the old ages, prosaic friendly design therefore generated considerable involvements and a important sum of literature and influential policy on urban walkability in TOD’s were developed in the Western world’s temperate urban zones. Soon, nevertheless, many of the world’s fastest developing urban countries are found in semitropical latitudes ( O’Hare,2006 ) . Western Australia, and peculiarly Perth, the urban Centre of the part is one such instance and serves as the focal point of this research. The paper explores the cardinal facets and physical qualities of built environment related to urban walkability with an purpose to promote farther treatment and surveies on how semitropical TOD’s can be designed to heighten prosaic motion every bit good as inquiry whether the orthodoxy of bing urban design rules require some changes to better accommodate to semitropical parts.

The paper establishes the recognized statements and urban design rules indispensable to urban walkability and develops from a reappraisal of urban design & A ; sustainability, a model that would promote pedestrians’ motion and conveyance waiting in a semitropical TOD. A literature reappraisal is produced to corroborate the turning importance of walkability and finally the paper explores, through field observations, how the established urban walkability rules apply in the semitropical parts. It concludes by giving some recommendations that could be applied to Claremont town Centre for an improved prosaic friendly TOD.
Accepted statements for urban walkability + Literature reappraisal
Recognised as the oldest signifier of urban conveyance, walking is a manner of meeting and prosecuting with the local milieus and wider society in a mode non rather possible when following other agencies of conveyance, particularly centrifugal conveyance. Gehl & A ; Gemzoe ( 2003 ) , strongly highlight walking as a solution to breaking the public land as portion of the sweetening of the local vicinity and urban greening.
With emerging concerns that auto dependent metropoliss will non be sustainable in the hereafter, due to energy costs, fuel handiness, congestion, pollution and other environmental impacts, much consciousness is being raised about the importance of walking. Harmonizing to US researches, surveies show that there is a 30 % more likeliness that compact-mixed usage development occupants would walk ( to a restaurant/park ) than those populating huge motor-oriented environments ( Cervero & A ; Radisch,1996 ) . Hodgson, Page, & A ; Tight ( 2004 ) besides conclude from their research that that TOD’s with appropriate design lead to more prosaic and transit trips ensuing in a diminution in non-motorised transit manners to cut down pollution emanations
In concurrence to sustainability issues, the intra-generational equity theory and policy besides acknowledge that a major portion of the population constitutes of people who are highly immature, old, unhealthy, disabled or needy to hold entree or control over a private auto ( O’Hare,2006 ) .
Recently, considerable involvement in improved walking environments has been generated as a consequence of the desire to promote nonmotorized transit manners to cut down pollution emanations and to better public wellness by increased degrees of walking ( Evans-Cowley, 2006 ) . A big organic structure of research has confirmed that a favourable walking environment is a necessary status for advancing walking and vicinity interaction ( Clifton, Smith, & A ; Rodriguez, 2007 ) .
Public wellness
The World Health Organisation ( WHO ) Charter on Transport, Environment and Health every bit good as the WHO Healthy Cities Program have recognised the prominence of urban walkability long before the urban design and planning Fieldss.
The public wellness sector recognises that ‘active transport’ ( such as walking, including walking to the coach or train ) involves incidental physical activity. This incidental physical activity is an of import constituent of active life ( O’Hare 2000 ) . Active life, together with a healthy diet, has the possible to change by reversal current international tendencies towards sedentary life styles and the attach toing wellness hazards associated with fleshiness. Australia has been rated by different bureaus as one of the world’s top four states for fleshiness. Give that much of the world’s urban population growing is happening in the tropical and semitropical zones, it is of import to analyze urban walkability rules with peculiar attending to conditions in those non-temperate climatic zones.
A Perth survey found commuters utilizing public conveyance accumulated seven times more exercising than private automobilists
The prevalence of fleshiness in Australia has more than doubled in the last 20 old ages: 52 % of adult females, 67 % of work forces, and 25 % of kids are fleshy or corpulent.
Urban walkability rules in Tod:
Jacobs ( 1960 ) spelled out about half a century ago that urban design qualities associating to the quality of prosaic experience are indispensable to back up walkability. “Active frontages” and “eyes on the street” were recognised as few of the many important facets. Based on the best patterns from around the universe, 8 rules critical to making walkable TOD’s are identified in this paper.
1. WALK – Developing attractive prosaic environment ensures handiness and mobility for all.
2. PLACE-MAKING – Making a sense of topographic point makes encourages prosaic activity and liveability.
3. CONNECT – Making heavy webs of theodolite paths consequences in a high grade of connectivity.
4. TRANSIT – Locate land uses so that they are transit supportive and close to high quality conveyance.
5. MIX – Planning for assorted usage will advance prosaic involvement, safety, 24 hr activity.
6. DENSIFY – Sufficient denseness and compact signifier make theodolite feasible and improve walkability.
7. COMPACT – Planing for compact countries with short commutes improves efficiency.
8. Switch – Controling the amount/location of parking additions mobility.
It is nevertheless of import to understand that although listed separately, for a development to go genuinely transit oriented, we must be able to film over the boundary between these rules so that they are all interconnected
Urban design theory and pattern guidelines for walkable topographic points were largely developed in metropoliss located in the temperate climatic zone. In the semitropicss, summer is the season of uncomfortableness for Walkers, whereas in temperate metropoliss it is the winter that brings uncomfortableness to urban walkers. The coastal semitropical metropolis lacks the icy winds, snow, sleet, hoar, and other winter uncomfortablenesss of the temperate metropolis. The pleasant winter prosaic conditions of the semitropical metropolis are offset, nevertheless, by the summer challenges of heat, humidness and blaze. The following subdivision of this paper explores the demand for an ‘intemperate’ attack to accomplishing urban walkability in the semitropical metropolis
Urban walkability in semitropical TODs – Model
It is of import to understand that in the fast turning semitropical urban parts of the universe, clime and local topography are influential elements associated with walkability. Traveling at a slower gait, walkers are prone to detect many more perceptible inside informations and are exposed to the environing elements and climatic factors. Protection from Sun, rain, humidness or heat must hence be taken into history when be aftering a prosaic environment. Pulling on research and maintaining in head the factors associated with semitropical urban parts, a model of urban design rules is developed as schemes that would outdo enhance prosaic motion or waiting in semitropical TOD’s. The cardinal factors to doing walking appealing are grouped in three major classs: SAFETY, ACTVITY AND COMFORT.
Figure 1 – Framework Venn diagram, 2014.
Figure 2 – A balanced street has ample pavements, comfy motorcycle installations that connect to a web, and safe ways to traverse streets, doing active transit possible even on larger roads. Image by EMBARQ.
Stimulating walking necessitates that these travelers can travel about efficiency, comfortably, and most significantly, safely. Physical design schemes that could be implemented in the ‘Safety, Activity, Comfort’ model are discussed below:
Safety:
1. Guaranting wider pavement can supply for easy prosaic motion and at the same clip advance commercial activity/interaction
2. Removing physical or sensed barriers to guarantee that the walker has level and obstruction free set of pavement – “pedestrian zone”
3. Supplying prosaic oriented quality illuming that illuminated their waies will add to the walker’s sense of safety
4. Responsive walk marks at traversing visible radiations designed with better timing and automatic changing to prioritize the demands of walkers, raised intersections, mini traffic circles or velocity bulges will promote safe motion.
Activity:
1. Well-connected streets guarantee that occupants can conveniently entree all parts of the TOD, therefore triping the street usage.
2. Developing mixed-use street active frontages promote safety, security and Foster vibrant societal life in the streets.
3. Attractive infinites with edifice orientation to the public street, ocular involvements, constructing articulation and landscaping encourage walkers to garner and linger
4. Way happening aids/proper signage must be implemented to assist people orient themselves and promote motion through unfastened public countries.
5.Transit Stationss should be activated by cafe/newspapers bases or other installations to do conveyance waiting wothwhile
Comfort:
1. The usage of shelters in prosaic and transit areas/stops allows for uncomfortableness decrease and provides remainder for walkers.
2. Provision of pathway sunshades, arcades, and other conditions protection at least at certain intervals will function as shelter from Sun or showers.
3. Supplying a high grade of street comfortss ( benches, refuse tins, imbibing fountains ) and resting topographic points will rise the image of the street and pull all demographics to comfortably linger.
4. Equally good as supplying a solution to the heat & A ; humidness, street trees shade and protect walkers from the rain. John walkers can besides be protected from autos when verdure is carefully designed along kerb.
5. Sidewalk with a width proportional to the graduated table of the TOD country and planned walkability degree ensures comfy walking experiences for everyone.
Case surveies
Subiaco City and Claremont Town Centre, selected as instance surveies for this paper are recent both theodolite oriented countries developed in Perth part with a railroad line go throughing through. The survey country boundaries for each include the country within an 800-metre radius environing the train station.
Subiaco metropolis -Subiaco, known as Subi is a historic inner western suburb located around 3kms from Perth CBD and is focussed around a lively retail strip of Rockeby route. The Subi Centro undertaking embracing the North and West of the Subiaco railroad station began in 1994 and incorporated many new homes, concern Centres and commercial infinite. An of import facet was the undergrounding of the railroad line which in the yesteryear divided Subiaco. As an example of urban regeneration back uping its heritage context, the undertaking achieves a high quality public kingdom.
Claremont Town – Claremont Town Centre, another western suburb finds itself midway of Perth CBD and Fremantle port on the north bank of Swan River. Claremont Town Centre is a important shopping country concentrated around St Quentin’s Avenue/Bay View Terrace and located South of the Claremont train station. The Claremont North East Precinct undertaking is an ongoing undertaking started in 2005 as an enterprise to revitalize the Northern portion of the town which is presently disconnected from the southern portion. It aspires a vivacious mixed used development around the Claremont football ellipse as a measure towards societal, economic and environmental sustainability.
The intent of this study, being to measure and heighten the quality of prosaic environment, 3 methods is used to garner information:
1. Ped-shed analysis is conducted at a 400m radius ( 5 min walk ) and an 800m radius ( 10 min- walk )
2. SAFETY-ACTIVITY- COMFORT appraisal sheet is used to rate physical micro – attributes of the built environment on the streets.
3. Experimental analysis of the site – pictures/personal experience
DATA ANALYSIS
The information collected from these were used to measure to what degree the factors discussed in the model and considered influential to walkability are either present or missing in these two survey countries.
Pedshed ratio
Analysis of the connectivity of both TODs was assessed through the ped-shed ratios calculated. A comparing of the two diagrams that Subiaco’s street grid web provides many waies and affiliated streets, promoting them to walk and be within short walking distance of the train station. Claremont on the other manus, lacks this grade of prosaic connectivity and offers limited path pick to the individual walking.
After analyzing the connectivity of each site, visuals were gathered from field observations to compare one to another. The Safety-Activity-Comfort assessment sheet was so used to analyze and rate each class.
Key findings
As seen from the evaluation, Subiaco metropolis stands out footings of supplying certain positive physical street elements that affect walkability. Observation from field analysis showed that street frontages on streets next to the train station were rather lively and extremely articulated. Seating countries, illuming, verdures and shaded musca volitanss contributed to pulling prosaic activity in the country.
It was gathered from observations and research that Subiaco’s success as a prosaic friendly vicinity was besides due to the fact that the City of Subiaco Councillors had established a vision statement of “The Best Main Street Village in Australia” for the country. Rockeby street, in this respect, was developed as a topographic point to come back to alternatively of merely being a theodolite street and development tendencies, chances and alterations were carefully thought of so as the area’s alone ‘sense of place’ was preserved. Famously advocated by Toderian ( 2014 ) as “streets that are for people to bask and linger, non merely travel through..places that are both ab initio attractive and ‘sticky’ , ask foring people to love it and non desire to go forth it” , positive thoughts of gluey street construct seems to hold been successfully adopted in planing Subiaco’s chief street. With the aim of be aftering non merely for the substructure and public conveyance, but besides the stores, coffeehouse and the people, Rockeby Street has flourished as iconic community hub of societal, civic and commercial activity with public infinites as focal points.
On the downside nevertheless, field observations besides indicated a figure of vacant stores or those in the procedure of shuting down in Rockeby route retail strip. High rental rates, competition from nearby precinct and over restrictive licensing policies has caused a diminution in cafe/retail strips and a 5 % retail vacancy rate in the country ( Tsagalis2012 ) . It was besides found that an alfresco dining license in Subiaco was more expensive than Western Australia’s norm and compared to a study of local authoritiess in Perth and the eastern provinces ( Law, 2014 ) .Mayor Henderson ( 2014 ) has approached this issue saying that “We are cognizant that council needs to step up to the home base and do some alterations in order to make the plangency in the chief street in Subiaco” . In an attempt to promote more local concerns to run street trading/ alfresco dining countries to revitalize a spirited street and safe environment for the community, the council of the City of Subiaco has late resolved to amend bing associated fees. As of 31st October 2014, a noteworthy decrease in application/licensing fees, a m2 footing fee and the induction of low-priced short term options will be available for Subiaco retail merchants and it an addition in street activity is expected.
While Claremont Town Centre signifiers portion of a outstanding retail country, it comes chiefly in the signifier of indoor promenades which attract the walkers inside instead than being on the route. The chief theodolite next route, Grugeri Street, has a space wall facade with limited or no prosaic activity. The street is besides really limited in term of comfort since the sunshades size is excessively little to supply shadiness or shelter. Bus tops and street comfortss besides lack assortment and sweetening to pull people to linger.
Recommendations
Apparent from the experimental audit and findings is that Claremont Town Centre has many physical failings in footings of walkability in a semitropical Tod. Because similar failings may be other western Australian TOD’s, some recommendations may use for multiple sites and can be used as a usher for enhanced walking experiences.
It was revealed from the site observations and findings of these 2 TOD’s in Perth that there is some manner to travel before Western Australia can claim to hold a truly sustainable attack. Having established that urban walkability is critical to accomplish a sustainable semitropical TOD, it is of import for TOD contrivers to be able to follow a revised model of rules sing the physical environment attributes that would work best for semitropical Perth parts and unify them with new advanced design schemes which would farther heighten walking in Perth. It is besides of import for town/city contrivers to reexamine regulations and ordinances in order to increase plangency in TOD’s instead than being over restrictive.
Decision
Having established that a successful TOD walkability is straight associated with a safe, comfy and attractive prosaic environment, this paper demonstrates that careful physical planning and good urban design solutions can really much enhance the pedestrian’s experience. It inquiries the demands of a semitropical metropolis in term of its clime, topography and individuality and so explores a model of revised walkability rules that can be applied to the semitropical metropolis.
The instance surveies reveal responses and challenges to urban design for walkability in Perth and certain successful elements are recommended as schemes to better Claremont’s TOD in footings of walking experience. It besides inquiries whether over restrictive be aftering policies may necessitate to be reconsidered to maintain a TOD street alive and vivacious. It besides recommends advanced schemes of urban design that other undertakings may copy or accommodate in portion for design and place-making attacks to give a alone sense of topographic point to the semitropical TOD.
Although each hereafter TOD will cover with the legion complex design challenges depending on peculiar fortunes around each undertaking, it is the purpose of this paper to excite treatment and hopefully more significant research into the planning of walkable semitropical metropoliss since so many of the world’s most quickly turning urban countries are now situated in the tropical and semitropical zones.

Accepted Arguments for Urban Walkability

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Celsus Arguments Against Christianity

Celsus Arguments Against Christianity.
The first of 4 arguments I believe to be of importance is that of the virgin birth. Jesus claims to be born of a virgin in the town of Bethlehem. It was said that Jesus was born to a virgin and God himself. When it was time for Mary to give birth she and her husband set off to have God’s son. Because there was no room at an Inn Jesus was born in a stable. On the contrary to what the Christian religion believes Celsus says that Jesus was born to a mother who was a spinner, and his legitimate father a Roman soldier, Panthera (Celsus pg. 57). It seemed as if it ere common knowledge the transgressions that Jesus mother had committed with the Roman. When this was found out Jesus mother was cast out by her carpenter husband and convicted of adultery (Celsus pg. 57). The Jews then went on with the story by saying this was explained by the fact that Herod wanted Jesus killed so they fled to Egypt (Celsus pg. 59). Herod feared that the son of God was going to be born and become the rightful king taking Herod’s throne. Herod sent out a decree that all male babies born would be put to death.
Celsus felt that being a God, Jesus should have not been afraid of death, but yet embrace it like the roman Gods did. He was a king after all, and kings were noble, righteous, brave, and willing to die for their subjects. This argument against Jesus seems to be just the beginning, in my opinion, of the downfall of his character. The next point I feel valid to Celsus arguments is that of the Christian faith and their followers. Celsus argued that instead of Jesus wanting all to follow his disciples seemed to pray on the weak and dumb (Celsus pg. 73-75). Jesus followers were the weak, poor, lame, children, and women.
This was hardly the kingdom that was respectable. Roman Gods had kingdoms and armies of all kinds. It takes men, women, children, poor and rich to have a community. This was not the case for Christians. Christians used the excuse that those who were educated, sensible, or wise were evil (Celsus pg. 72). By welcoming only the weak and slow into the Christian fold it looks as if they can only sell their ideas to those who can’t think for themselves. It was like they were more interested in finding followers that were going to follow them no matter the stakes without any sort of challenge. Christianity seemed to be for the lower lass. This is surprising considering that Christianity was met with resistance from the Roman government where a lot of it needed to be done in secrecy. This seems to be a slap in the face to the Romans who encouraged progression and education, yet felt that loyalty was a must. Roman Gods are that of noble character and moral values. They surround themselves with people of the same likeness. Roman Gods were held to a higher standard and were expected to lead their lands with a moral compass and the best interests of everyone. They did not have the luxury of taking risky or even selfish chances.

They had to be the upmost and noblest of leaders to lead their people to a better life Jesus did not seem to follow this thinking, and surrounded himself with ten or eleven friends that he associated with (Celsus pg. 59) that were less than moral men, yet he was gaining followers (Celsus pg. 57). This was very dangerous to Rome. The next argument that seems to be of merit was that of GOD being God. In the reading Celsus makes points that the Christian God is nothing like the Greek and Roman Gods. The Christian God seemed as if he did not have an explanation as to why he let things happen to Good people.
He did not have anyone he answered to. The Roman Gods and Kings were the authority of the land, but did not have the right to be reckless with their kingdoms and subjects. The decisions the Romans made affected everyone under their reign, and they made sure that what was done was done in the best interests of all. Not only was it their moral compass, but also an ironclad duty to guide those under their authority in the ways of rightness. God did not follow this thinking pattern. God was justified by his followers by saying that it was a test they needed o endure. He was never challenged, or even questioned. Questioning seems to be a bit of taboo. Celsus brings up important points about God being unreachable and unable to save them from harm. My thinking on this was that he was sitting up in the sky watching, but doing nothing. Celsus points out that God keeps his purposes to himself for long periods of time and just stands by when evil overcomes good (Celsus pg. 77). Instead of stopping the suffering that going on he continued to let it happen. He just stood by when plagues, fires, earthquakes, and famines riddled the land.
It is hard to fathom God being all knowing and all mighty, yet he sits around and watches as thousands of his followers are killed through these disasters that he could have ceased with a single command or swipe of his hand. It does not seem to be something that a God with love for his children would let happen if he truly loved them like Christians claim. Instead his followers continued to believe that they just needed to have faith and they would be delivered. For Christians God, in likeness, is thought to be as man is with hands, body, and a voice that he uses to speak to his followers.
In fact, it says man is made of God’s likeness and image (Celsus pg. 103). Celsus disagreed with this point wholeheartedly. That is not how God is at all. It was known that the true God in his infinity is without shape or color (Celsus pg. 103). Celsus also showed discord in the fact that God is all powerful, but did nothing to save his own son from torture and death (Celsus pg. 39). Instead of using divine power, he let his son die a humiliating death. Kings and Gods would not have let this happen. They would have protected their own with everything they had, even if this meant their own deaths.
The last argument that seemed to have merit for me in this book would have to be that of Christianity being unoriginal, and taken instead from many other religions. Instead of being something original and brought about by itself. The Christian faith is just a melting pot of many other religions and laws. It is said that Moses wrote their history so it reflected them in a positive light. His doctrine was not only held by him, but many other nations and cities such as Egypt, Assyrians, Indians, Persians, Gaul, Getae, and so on (Celsus pg. 55). Many of the laws that are eld by Christianity were given their start by other nations. Even circumcision was said to be started by another society and picked up by the Jews. It seems as if all the facts are more of fables and stories from other people. It is even said that God’s wisdom and man’s goes back to Heracleitus and Plato (Celsus pg. 93). Homer even writes about the Christians beliefs in the afterlife or resurrection. He says “The gods will take you to the Elysian plains at the end of the earth, and there life will be easy” (Celsus pg. 109). This is one of the biggest draws to the Christian faith.
Everyone wants to believe that this life is not all there is to life. They want to believe there is life after death. It makes a person feel better about their lives. My point to this is that if the life hereafter is founded on someone else’s principles, what is honest and original about Christianity? I think the thing that was the most eye opening point to me was the fact you always here the prophesy of this God and how he was slapped on a the cheek, and he did nothing in retaliation, except turn the other cheek. Plato shares the same sentiments when he is talking to
Socrates in the Crito (Celsus pg. 113).. He talks about never ever doing wrong to someone even if they have avenged us first. He says that in doing that because we were wronged first, it is no different than if we had harmed the person first. Plato says it best in an exerpt “So we should never take revenge and never hurt anyone even if we have been hurt” (Celsus pg. 113). I think Celsus was just in thinking Christianity had quite a few flaws in it. Celsus was Looking at it as many should. While they are taught that it is enough to just believe, sometimes that is not enough.
Celsus was standing up for his country and his officials. He was putting thought in himself and the rules that were put down. We are taught to stand up for our country. How many times are we led astray by others? Do we simply just take officials word for it that They are doing what is right? I agree with Celsus that you stand for your country and your leaders. I also think and agree that you challenge someone if what they are saying seems to be a bit off. Celsus stood up for his gods and leaders of his country against someone who was threatening their very existence.

Celsus Arguments Against Christianity

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Different arguments of civil society by katy pace

Different arguments of civil society by katy pace.
Different arguments of civil society by katy pace BY Tuni127 Katie Pace Civil Society and its Definitions While generally acknowledged to consist of privately formed social organizations, civil society remains an ambiguous conception prone to diverse interpretations. As a Western idea, first made famous by Alexis de Tocqueville in his analysis of American democracy, its application worldwide and in nations with differing social, religious, economic and political backgrounds has created debate about what civil society is and how civil society influences or is influenced by government.
Tocqueville first presented civil society to the West as voluntary, non-political social organizations that strengthen democracy preventing a tyranny of the majority. Associations, which can be “religious, moral, serious, futile, general or restricted, enormous or diminutive”, protect diversity by uniting equal but weak individuals into powerful groups. These associations prevent the fragmentation of society by forcing men to consider the affairs of others and to work with their neighbors.
According to Tocqueville, the equality and individualism fostered by democracy convince men that hey need nothing from nor owe anything to their neighbors; thus, without civil society, they would isolate themselves from the community. Finally, Tocqueville argues that civil society fosters the social norms and trust necessary for people to work together and teaches individuals to appreciate and effectively use their liberties. Consequently, civil society promotes democracy and checks despotism.

Many Western writers wholeheartedly accepted Tocqueville’s definition of civil society. In both his book, Making Democracy Work, and his article, Tuning In, Tuning Out: The Strange Disappearance of Social Capital in America, Robert Putnam treats ivil society, also called social capital, as “features of social life- networks, norms and trust- that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives”. Putnam argues that social capital influences citizen engagement in the community, which in turn influences government.
A developed civil society is necessary for democracy to work well, for it relies on and develops the trust among individuals and the leadership skills necessary for a representative government. The author of the Solitary Bowler agrees that “the association-forming habit” is “the stuff if civil society’. His discussion of the decline of civil society in America is based on his Tocquevillean definition of civil society as a network of voluntary associations.
Though the author acknowledges that American civil society may simply be undergoing metamorphosis and not disappearing, he holds fast to his Western view by drawing the reader’s attention to new types of voluntary associations which fit snuggly into his definition. The article, Bowling Alone, also focuses on new forms of social capital, but it does not redefine social capital. Other writers question Tocqueville’s definition and analysis of civil society.
In his article, The Importance of Being Modular, Ernest Gellner agrees that civil society is “that set ot diverse non-governmental institutions, which is strong enough to counterbalance the state… whilst not preventing the state from fulfilling its role of keeper of the peace and arbitrator between major interests”. However, he argues that this definition is deficient because it includes elements of plural societies that should not be considered examples of civil society.
Gellner says a nation can have “a plural, non-centralized, but socially oppressive society’ in which social order is aintained by local, kin-defined, religious and stifling rituals that leave no room for individual autonomy. Therefore, civicness cannot be determined by pluralism. Once must narrow the definition of civil society and take a closer look at a society’s associations to see if they fall within the new definition. Sheri Berman attacks the traditional conception of civil society in, Civil Society and the Collapse of the Wiemar Republic. Prior to the nazi’s rise to power, Germany society was a plethora of social institutions.
Due to the lack of responsive national government and political parties, hese associations fragmented society instead of uniting it. Consequently, in an “inversion of neo-Tocquevillean theory’, civil society weakened and eventually destroyed the Weimar Republic, replacing a democracy with a totalitarian regime. Consequently, Berman argues that associations should be considered “a politically neutral multiplier, dependent for its effects on the wider political context”. Once the concept of civil society was applied to the East, more objections were thrown at it.
In his article, Orientalism, Islam and Islamists, Bryan Turner discusses the role of elativism and ethnocentrism in western analysis of Middle Eastern society. Turner defines the Western viewpoint of civil society as “that network of institutions which lies between the state and individual and which simultaneously connects the individual to authority and protects the individual from total political control. ” The West assumes that civil society is the main indication of social progress from a state of nature to one of civilization and from despotism to democracy.
Defined by the West, despotism exists where “civil society is either absent or underdeveloped”. The estern concept of civil society is based on in individualism; thus, the West assumes there is “no established tradition of legitimate opposition to arbitrary governments in Islam” because Islam is “devoid of individual rights and individuality’. However, the West ignores similarities between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Furthermore, the West accepts Islam’s lack of social capital as the cause of its political instability and fails to examine other possibilities.
Eva Bellin also questions the application of Tocqueville’s civil society to eastern studies in her work, Civil Society: Effective Tools of Analysis for Middle East Politics?. Bellin argues that the term itself has a range of definitions. The West has applied this ambiguous term to the Middle East and determined that the region is “inhospitable to civil society’. Yet, the West ignores the use of the term by Middle Easterners themselves. Leaders call on civil society to promote projects of modernization. Islamists employ the concept to gain influence in the public sphere. Intellectuals use the term to increase individual liberty.
Thus, civil society acquires elements of “secularism, citizenship, civisme, civility, civil iberties”, most of which would destroy despotism. Bellin concludes from this that the West should not dismiss the existence of civil society in the Middle East. Samu Zubaida also urges proponents of civil society to reexamine its definition in his article, Islam, the State and Democracy. He defines two concepts of civil society. The first, a secular-liberal definition, conceives ot civil society as voluntary associations that “foster individual autonomy and provide experience in the exercise of social and political rights and responsibilities”.
For such associations to exist, the state must ithdraw from economic and associational life while creating “legislation and institutional mechanisms which provide the framework of rights and obligations for these spheres”. The second definition of civil society is an Islamic-communal definition that conceives of civil society as an “informal network of relationships” whose focus is property and business. Finally, Ibn Khaldun provides a conception of civil society that, while written long before debates about social capital began, could enlighten the West about civil society in the East.
In The Maquaddimah, Khaldun’s ivil society is based on group feeling and religion. A leader acquires power and a society acquires stability if the community is bonded by feelings of kinship and common descent and by connections between clients and allies. Religion strengthens these bonds by eliminating Jealousy and discord as the community focuses its energy on important goals. Group feeling can exist in harmony with an absolute ruler and its lack can destroy an empire, rendering a community vulnerable to outside control. The different approaches to civil society outlined above leave the reader with two pposing definitions of civil society.
The first is a Tocquevillean definition in which civil society and democracy are assumed to complement each other. The second is a Middle Eastern definition in which civil society does not consist of formal groups whose existence is designed to achieve specific goals. Civil society is instead a series of informal relationships based on religious, familial and clientele connections that can and do exist under undemocratic governments, for they are entirely beyond the government’s sphere. These relationships have existed throughout Islamic history and continue to exist today.

Different arguments of civil society by katy pace

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What are the arguments for and against the state taking on responsibility for social welfare?

What are the arguments for and against the state taking on responsibility for social welfare?.
The different arguments for and against the state taking on responsibility for social welfare have been powerfully put across by people of opposing political persuasions in Britain over the last 60 years. In this essay, therefore, I intend to use Britain’s welfare state to exemplify arguments for and against the state taking primary responsibility for social welfare. The welfare state in Britain was introduced in 1945 by the newly elected Labour government. Although this was the first comprehensive attempt at creating a functional welfare state it is important to note that it was not an entirely new policy.
In fact, we can trace back to 1601 to find an early attempt at implementing a state welfare provision – the Poor Law. The theory behind this legislation was that the poor were to be categorized into the deserving (“the impotent poor”) and the undeserving (“the persistent idlers”). There were many obvious flaws in the methodology and logic in the implementation of the Poor Law but it must be recognised that this was an early attempt at providing a social welfare system. This demonstrates that for hundreds of years a case has been made for some measure of state social welfare provision.
It is also vital not to underestimate the impact the studies carried out by social researchers such as Rowntree (1901) and Booth (1902) had on the forming and implementation of a social welfare provision in 1945. The Beveridge report (1942) pointed to the “chaotic” and “piecemeal” introduction of changes into the system and stated the need for a new and more comprehensive system to be installed. Beveridge’s report was underpinned by the need to cure the “five giants”. Beveridge identified these “five giants” as: Idleness, Squalor, Ignorance, Want and Disease.

He identified the need for a state commitment to securing full employment to combat idleness. He argued public housing must be available for all citizens to rent. To cure ignorance he suggested the need for a free education system for anyone up to the age of 15. He suggested the implementation of a national health service to help cure disease. Finally, Beveridge argued that National Insurance benefits should be handed out to all in need. The welfare state had to be introduced in a series of acts, notably the National Health Service Act (1946), the Education Act (1944), the Family Allowance Act (1945).
At the time there was much reluctance towards carrying out all of the proposals. The arguments against this degree of state provision stemmed from concerns about cost and the fundamental principles of welfare (e. g. how decisions are made and who should be entitled to receive welfare). Because of the reluctance that grew from the fact that these arguments were never resolved. Beveridge’s suggestions were never fully implemented but his ideas still clearly formed the inspiration for the future of welfare reform.
One of the main criticisms of Beveridge’s proposals and of the concept of a welfare state is that a number of important assumptions have to be made for it to function successfully. For example, within the report, Beveridge makes the assumption that married women would be full time housewives and that for most of their lives women would not be employed. Therefore, married women would only receive benefits through men, thus, creating a culture which encourages women’s reliance on men. Because of this feminists have argued that the British welfare state relied on a “familial ideology” and treated women as second class citizens.
This example of the role of women within the welfare state illustrates the point that any welfare system is not neutral that is based on ideological assumptions. These assumptions will influence the way that different members of the public will respond to state provision of welfare. Another example of these ideological assumptions would be the 17th century belief that only the “impotent poor” deserve state welfare. The economics of Britain’s state welfare system have also come under a lot of criticism. These critics argue there are some fundamental flaws with the economic ideology underpinning the system.
Firstly, for the welfare state to operate properly and fairly their must be nearly full employment in the country where it is based as, in theory, this will maximize tax revenue and minimize unemployment benefits. This system worked relatively effectively until the early 1970’s. However, due to the relative decline of the UK economy, Britain suffered an economic crisis and unemployment started rising rapidly. Since then mass unemployment has been a serious problem within British society. Critics suggest that this is proof of how dependent a welfare state is on a prosperous economy.
Basically this meant that the welfare state was reliant on capitalism – rather than contributing to the undermining or softening of its most brutal aspects . The New Right have made strong arguments against state welfare provision. The 1979 election brought into power a conservative government that had a new and radical approach to public expenditure and the welfare state as a whole. Probably the most notable change in policy brought in by the New Right was the end of the commitment to full employment that previous governments had encouraged.
The New Right believed in a “natural level of employment”. They felt that this “natural level of employment” was being undermined by wages being too high due to the actions of trade unions. Therefore, they argued that the market would solve unemployment by creating downward pressure on wages. Because of this, the differential between wages and benefits was increased by creating downward pressure on benefit levels and therefore welfare expenditure. However, despite this right wing shift in political thinking, there was no major change in welfare expenditure until the late 1980’s.
The year 1988 was an important one in terms of implications for the welfare state as it represented a far more radical application of New Right thinking towards the welfare state. Firstly, the New Right introduced a shift from the previous system of universal provision towards a system based more upon selective provision. For example, some of the benefits that were previously available to everyone (universal) became only available to some via a “means test” (selective). This was a big move that completely contradicted the universal method employed by previous more left wing governments.
Another change made by the New Right was the introduction of privatization and marketization. An example of this is the case of the sale of council houses. The public housing stock was privatized and sold off in an attempt to create a market for the council housing which had originally in Beveridge’s thinking, been intended for public ownership and private rent. Another major shift made by the Conservative government was towards community care. There was a trend for mentally ill, elderly and disabled people to be moved from institutions to care in the community.
However, what this basically meant was that rather than institutional care the responsibility was shifted onto the family. It is also very important to note that care in the community was considerably cheaper for the state to maintain than institutional care. The New Right also consciously made an effort to change the public’s perception of welfare – shifting away from the view that the state is the only provider of welfare. The responsibility of the state was reduced through the encouragement of private provision and by emphasizing the importance of the charitable and voluntary sector.
This is one of the central strands of the argument against state welfare provision. At this juncture it is important to consider the effect privatization has had on society and the welfare state. Since the New Right introduced new policy pertaining to welfare in 1979 there have been a number of examples of the UK government seeking to encourage private provision of welfare. People have been encouraged to take out private insurance plans for their welfare needs and the number of people covered by private health insurance rose from 2. million to 5. 2 million between 1976 and 1986 (Julian Le Grand, 1990).
In the mid 1980’s the Conservative government tried to shift sickness insurance and pension insurance into the private sector also. These plans, however, never came to fruition owing to major criticism and insurance companies expressing a reluctance to take up policies for all employees Hutton (1996) strongly criticizes the New Rights welfare expenditure policy. He argues against the belief that public expenditure should be reduced during troubled times for the economy.
Hutton believes that the cuts are spurred by political ideology rather then by economic need. In Hutton’s words “apart from Iceland, Britain runs the meanest, tightest, lowest-cost social security system in the world”. Hutton alleges that the twenty-first century will see a large rise in the amount of tax revenue available to fund welfare payments. The voluntary sector must also be discussed when considering arguments for and against the state taking on responsibility for the welfare state.
Organizations such as Barnados, the Salvation Army and the NSPCC provide voluntary care. They serve a different role to statutory bodies set up by Parliament, but the views of these voluntary providers are respected and need to be taken into account as well. These organizations tend to have specialized expertise and experience in certain areas and the government can benefit from this knowledge. A major bonus of voluntary provision is that they are often very cost effective as unpaid volunteers are often used.
It is estimated by Knapp (1989) that the total amount of public-sector support for voluntary provision between 1983 and 1986 was i??3151 million. However, there are also inherent weaknesses in voluntary provision. The biggest and most blatant problem stems from the nature of voluntary work as it cannot be guaranteed. Critics also point to the fact that voluntary work may be unequally provided across the country. The service can therefore be inconsistent and the advice from the voluntary sector to government might differ depending on the region.
It is also suggested that due to financial restrictions the voluntary sector will never be anything more than a secondary level service that relies on the state or private sector provision. Social security benefits are the most redistributive aspect of the welfare state as they distribute income to the poorest people in the country. A point in favour of a social welfare system, from a socialist or social democratic perspective, is that the social security benefits can be used to redistribute wealth to make society economically fairer by heavily taxing the rich and giving it to the poorest people in society.
On the other hand, opponents see this as a Robin Hood aspect of state social welfare which demotivates both the richest and the poorest people in the country – encouraging idleness (one of the “five giants” beveridge was trying to eradicate) amongst the poor and encouraging the rich to leave the country. The New Right when in power, therefore, cut back on the redistributive aspects of welfare provision. The one-off grant system that was previously in effect was replaced in the 1986 and 1988 security acts and 16 to 18 year olds entitlement to income support was revoked.
In current political debates the Conservative party, now in opposition frequently accuse the Labour party of redistributing wealth from the rich to the poor via “underhand” or “stealthy” methods. This is an indication that the argument about the extent to which the state should take responsibility for social welfare remains highly contested. Where you stand on this issue is fundamental to your political beliefs and how you will vote.

What are the arguments for and against the state taking on responsibility for social welfare?

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Explore the various arguments used by John Donne to achieve his aim

Explore the various arguments used by John Donne to achieve his aim.
Donne’s main aim in the poem is to persuade his lover to go to bed with him, to do this he uses various techniques and arguments throughout the poem to tempt her into doing so.
We see Donne trying to lure his partner into sleeping with him,
“And in this flea, our two bloods mingled bee”

By use of this conceit he suggests that as their bloods have already been mixed by the flea, they have been joined. This implies that when the blood mixes it is the same result as if they had had sex nevertheless as their bloods would have united. This is a very weak argument on behalf of Donne as the blood does not actually pass from one person to another during sexual intercourse; it is only bodily fluids. We can see that in “The Sunne Rising” that Donne suggests ideas that are unrealistic.
“goe childe” and “goe tell court-huntsmen”
This is obviously not thought about, because if the sun was to go away, life could not continue as the sun is vital to survival.
Donne knows that his partner is religious, and so uses this to his advantage by exploiting her weaknesses.
“This flea is you and I, and this
our marriage bed, and marriage temple is;”
Donne compares the flea to being a temple, which is an obvious religious symbol. He is comparing it to marriage where their two bloods have been merged to become, like the bond two people make when being married. Because his lover is religious, she would believe in not having sex until marriage. Donne is trying to convince her that it is as if they have already been married because their bloods have been unified within the temple that is the flea.
John Donne attempts to persuade his lover into making love with him by using metaphysical conceit, a common tactic used by several other poets of this genre.
“A sinne, nor shame, nor losse of Maidenhead”
The plan of John Donne at this point is to show the similarity between the two ideas of the body and the flea. This concept would have been appreciated by a reader of this era – Elizabethans believed that sexual intercourse involved the mixing of people’s blood. Therefore, the idea that the flea is an example of their mixed blood by this theory proves that intercourse has taken place. The language used n this line is soft in nature and persuades his lover to feel guiltless and secure – in addition the tone is fluent and articulate.
Donne uses various arguments to try to persuade his lover to have sex with him. She is tempted but is held back by religion, family and overall fear. Donne’s arguments are not very strong, although at the time they would have been considered differently.

Explore the various arguments used by John Donne to achieve his aim

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Analysis of Arguments for and Against the Institutions

Analysis of Arguments for and Against the Institutions.
The Bretton Woods twins, namely the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, have been the focus of attention for several years already since its inception. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development has been changed to its presently popular name of World Bank. It is the aim of this paper to make a general presentation and evaluation of the argument posed for and against the Bretton Woods institutions in relation to their influence on the sovereign decision making process of the different countries in the global economic arena.

During its creation, the IMF and the World Bank has been absorbed with practices of neoliberal economy policies that sought to liberalize the market from the state and minimize government intervention in the premise that “the state itself was conceived as the problem rather than the solution” (Onis and Senses 2005: 264). It has been clearly pointed out by Onis and Senses (2005) that the effects of strict adherence to the neoliberal practices proposed by the Bretton Woods institutions have led to problems for a lot of countries.

Among them is Argentina who has fallen suddenly at the peak of its swing (Onis and Senses 2005). This was followed by a shift of the Bretton Woods institutions to rethinking the neoliberal practices they have imposed as a tight rope to the countries they have bestowed with different programmes. However, it is still stained with uncertainty as to whether their sincerity is real or not in the light of their actions (Onis and Senses 2005: 280).
The arguments posed by the authors, Onis and Senses (2005), have been followed by concrete examples from countries that have adopted the neoliberal approaches hailed to be good by the Bretton Woods institutions but did not directly provide as to how and why there were failures on the part of the Bretton Woods institutions than what Stiglitz (2003) had done. Another counter-argument thrown towards the IMF, in particular, is its failure in the East Asian Crisis.
It has not adhered to the objectives originally formulated by Keynes when it had begun, which was to adopt policies that are expansionary in nature and to provide for funding to developmental undertakings (Stiglitz, 2003). In fact, they have provided for policies that have been contractionary fiscal policies that either involved reducing public spending, increase in taxes, or adopting both. With regard to objectives, this argument stated by Stiglitz is valid for it has stated the whys of the failure of IMF with regard to objectives.
The author also provided the answer to the question “how” by stating that the IMF has been accountable to a single stream of representatives, who are in turn becoming less and less accountable (Stiglitz 2003: 119). A good argument placed upon the World Bank has something to do with the fact that it has been able to learn from the mistakes of the IMF and was able to discuss the problems that have beset their organization (Stiglitz 2003). The World Bank, unlike the IMF, was accountable to a lot of sectors and, with its leaders, was able to discuss the problems and criticisms that have been pushed their way (Stiglitz 2003).
This approach by the World Bank was better than the actions of the IMF, who actually blamed the governments for poor implementation. However, with regard to the aids given by the Bank to the developing countries, there are certain conditions such as policies that would pave the way for the success of the aid given (Stiglitz 2003: 124). Thus, this has rendered the aid more selective. These are among the several arguments placed and there is more coming from the different fields in the academe. These criticisms only show that the institutions formed Bretton Woods left some more room for improvement.
In addition to this, these arguments have shown that the courses of action taken by these institutions had impacts that are felt by both the developing and the developed countries. References Onis, Z. and Senses, F. (2005), ‘Re-thinking the Emerging Post-Washington Consensus. ’ Development and Change 36, (2) 263-290. Stiglitz, J. (2003), ‘Democratizing the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank: Governance and Accountability. ’ Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions 16, (1) 111-139.

Analysis of Arguments for and Against the Institutions

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